{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]],"date-time":"2026-04-02T09:43:21Z","timestamp":1775123001208,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,29]],"date-time":"2021-01-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1611878400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Proper stroke posture and rhythm are crucial for kayakers to achieve perfect performance and avoid the occurrence of sport injuries. The traditional video-based analysis method has numerous limitations (e.g., site and occlusion). In this study, we propose a systematic approach for evaluating the training performance of kayakers based on the multiple sensors fusion technology. Kayakers\u2019 motion information is collected by miniature inertial sensor nodes attached on the body. The extend Kalman filter (EKF) method is used for data fusion and updating human posture. After sensor calibration, the kayakers\u2019 actions are reconstructed by rigid-body model. The quantitative kinematic analysis is carried out based on joint angles. Machine learning algorithms are used for differentiating the stroke cycle into different phases, including entry, pull, exit and recovery. The experiment shows that our method can provide comprehensive motion evaluation information under real on-water scenario, and the phase identification of kayaker\u2019s motions is up to 98% validated by videography method. The proposed approach can provide quantitative information for coaches and athletes, which can be used to improve the training effects.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21030914","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,29]],"date-time":"2021-01-29T09:25:22Z","timestamp":1611912322000},"page":"914","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":23,"title":["Paddle Stroke Analysis for Kayakers Using Wearable Technologies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8818-4339","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Long","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Dalian Neusoft University of Information, Dalian 116023, China"},{"name":"The Laboratory of Intelligent System, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"}]},{"given":"Hui-Hui","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dalian Neusoft University of Information, Dalian 116023, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6846-546X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sen","family":"Qiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Laboratory of Intelligent System, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"}]},{"given":"Yun-Cui","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Research Institute of Photonics, Dalian Polytechnic University, Dalian 116023, China"}]},{"given":"Zheng-Dong","family":"Hao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Laboratory of Intelligent System, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1519\/JSC.0b013e31829b56c4","article-title":"Methods for quantifying training in sprint kayak","volume":"28","author":"Borges","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Strength Cond. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"41","article-title":"Analysis of the kayak forward stroke according to skill level and knee flexion angle","volume":"4","author":"Lee","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Bio-Sci. Bio-Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1080\/24748668.2011.11868538","article-title":"Notational analysis of sprint kayaking: Differentiating between ability levels","volume":"11","author":"Brown","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Perform. Anal. Sport"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.2478\/hukin-2018-0038","article-title":"A Video-based Method to Quantify Stroke Synchronisation in Crew Boat Sprint Kayaking","volume":"65","author":"Tay","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Hum. Kinet."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1123\/jab.2014-0114","article-title":"Paddling force profiles at different stroke rates in elite sprint kayaking","volume":"31","author":"Gomes","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Appl. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Gravenhorst, F., Tessendorf, B., Adelsberger, R., Arnrich, B., Tr\u00f6ster, G., and Thiem, C. (2012). SonicSeat: A seat position tracker based on ultrasonic sound measurements for rowing technique analysis. BODYNETS, Available online: https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwiX987v2bbuAhUF_aQKHTCoBt4QFjAAegQIBhAC&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.research-collection.ethz.ch%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F20.500.11850%2F95501%2Feth-47161-02.pdf&usg=AOvVaw0_2M2ZEQUAOu3zSYn8tbwR."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1080\/02640419508732228","article-title":"An evaluation of instrumented tank rowing for objective assessment of rowing performance","volume":"13","author":"Henry","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Sport. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1080\/17461390701478357","article-title":"Morphological characteristics of Olympic slalom canoe and kayak paddlers","volume":"7","author":"Ridge","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. J. Sport Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"443","article-title":"Biomechanical analysis of Olympic flatwater kayaking and canoeing","volume":"50","author":"Plagenhoef","year":"1979","journal-title":"Res. Quarterly. Am. Alliance Heal. Phys. Educ. Recreat. Danc."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sturm, D., Yousaf, K., and Eriksson, M. (2010, January 7\u20139). A wireless, unobtrusive kayak sensor network enabling feedback solutions. Proceedings of the 2010 International Conference on Body Sensor Networks, Singapore.","DOI":"10.1109\/BSN.2010.24"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"939","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2015.2504078","article-title":"Using distributed wearable sensors to measure and evaluate human lower limb motions","volume":"65","author":"Qiu","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tesconi, M., Tognetti, A., Scilingo, E.P., Zupone, G., Carbonaro, N., De Rossi, D., Castellini, E., and Marella, M. (2007, January 4\u20137). Wearable sensorized system for analyzing the lower limb movement during rowing activity. Proceedings of the 2007 IEEE International Symposium on Industrial Electronics, Vigo, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISIE.2007.4375052"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"King, R.C., McIlwraith, D.G., Lo, B., Pansiot, J., McGregor, A.H., and Yang, G.Z. (2009, January 3\u20135). Body sensor networks for monitoring rowing technique. Proceedings of the 2009 Sixth International Workshop on Wearable and Implantable Body Sensor Networks, Berkeley, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/BSN.2009.60"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"92","article-title":"Sensor fusion for complex articulated body tracking applied in rowing","volume":"229","author":"Ruffaldi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part P J. Sport. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"191","article-title":"Relationship between performance test and body composition\/physical strength characteristic in sprint canoe and kayak paddlers","volume":"6","author":"Hamano","year":"2015","journal-title":"Open Access J. Sport. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2692","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2018.2826198","article-title":"Inertial sensor-based analysis of equestrian sports between beginner and professional riders under different horse gaits","volume":"67","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsams.2009.09.003","article-title":"The relationship between joint range of motion, muscular strength, and race time for sub-elite flat water kayakers","volume":"13","author":"McKean","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Sci. Med. Sport"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2093","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2014.2330446","article-title":"Explicit Solution for Magnetometer Calibration","volume":"63","author":"Hemerly","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Falbriard, M., Mohr, M., and Aminian, K. (2020). Hurdle Clearance Detection and Spatiotemporal Analysis in 400 Meters Hurdles Races Using Shoe-Mounted Magnetic and Inertial Sensors. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20020354"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2006.1603413","article-title":"Novel quaternion Kalman filter","volume":"42","author":"Choukroun","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salchow-H\u00f6mmen, C., Callies, L., Laidig, D., Valtin, M., Schauer, T., and Seel, T. (2019). A tangible solution for hand motion tracking in clinical applications. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19010208"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1109\/TAC.1966.1098430","article-title":"Euler angle transformations","volume":"11","author":"Pio","year":"1966","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Autom. Control"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"1","article-title":"Wearable Sensors Measure Ankle Joint Changes of Patients with Parkinson\u2019s Disease before and after Acute Levodopa Challenge","volume":"2020","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Park. Dis."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, L., Qiu, S., Wang, Z.L., Li, J., and Wang, J.X. (2020). Canoeing Motion Tracking and Analysis via Multi-Sensors Fusion. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20072110"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Li, J., Wang, Z., Qiu, S., Zhao, H., and Yang, N. (2019). Study on Horse-rider Interaction Based on Body Sensor Network in Competitive Equitation. IEEE Trans. Affect. Comput., 1."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Worsey, M.T., Espinosa, H.G., Shepherd, J.B., and Thiel, D.V. (2019). A systematic review of performance analysis in rowing using inertial sensors. Electronics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics8111304"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1080\/14763141.2012.724701","article-title":"An observational model for biomechanical assessment of sprint kayaking technique","volume":"11","author":"McDonnell","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sport. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.inffus.2020.12.009","article-title":"A selection framework of sensor combination feature subset for human motion phase segmentation","volume":"70","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Inf. Fusion"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, A., and Kingsbury, N. (2017, January 5\u20139). Dual-tree wavelet scattering network with parametric log transformation for object classification. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP), New Orleans, LA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICASSP.2017.7952631"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1080\/14763141.2017.1409259","article-title":"Accuracy between optical and inertial motion capture systems for assessing trunk speed during preferred gait and transition periods","volume":"18","author":"Fleron","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sport. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"430","article-title":"Effect of kayak ergometer elastic tension on upper limb EMG activity and 3D kinematics","volume":"11","author":"Fleming","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Sport. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1007\/s11332-010-0093-7","article-title":"Tridimensional kinematic analysis on a kayaking simulator: Key factors to successful performance","volume":"6","author":"Limonta","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sport Sci. Health"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1080\/14763141.2011.569563","article-title":"Scapulohumeral kinematic assessment of the forward kayak stroke in experienced whitewater kayakers","volume":"10","author":"Wassinger","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sport. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1080\/14763141.2012.760106","article-title":"A deterministic model based on evidence for the associations between kinematic variables and sprint kayak performance","volume":"12","author":"McDonnell","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sport. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1872","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2012.230","article-title":"Invariant scattering convolution networks","volume":"35","author":"Bruna","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bosch, S., Shoaib, M., Geerlings, S., Buit, L., Meratnia, N., and Havinga, P. (2015, January 28\u201330). Analysis of indoor rowing motion using wearable inertial sensors. Proceedings of the 10th EAI International Conference on Body Area Networks, Sydney, Australia.","DOI":"10.4108\/eai.28-9-2015.2261465"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelekin.2005.11.012","article-title":"Shoulder muscle recruitment patterns during a kayak stroke performed on a paddling ergometer","volume":"17","author":"Trevithick","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Electromyogr. Kinesiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2012.11.006","article-title":"Differences between elite, junior and non-rowers in kinematic and kinetic parameters during ergometer rowing","volume":"32","author":"Kamnik","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Kemecsey, I. Personal communication."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1080\/14763141.2017.1359330","article-title":"Three-dimensional kinematic analysis and power output of elite flat-water kayakers","volume":"17","author":"Bjerkefors","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sport. Biomech."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/3\/914\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:17:18Z","timestamp":1760159838000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/3\/914"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,29]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s21030914"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21030914","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,29]]}}}