{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]],"date-time":"2026-04-07T07:30:17Z","timestamp":1775547017360,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,2]],"date-time":"2021-02-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1612224000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41474132"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41474132"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"the Post-doctoral innovation project of Hubei Province","award":["1232007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1232007"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The 2011 Tohoku earthquake and the following enormous tsunami caused great disturbances in the ionosphere that were observed in various regions along the Pacific Ocean. In this study, the oblique-incidence ionosonde detection network located in North China was applied to investigate the inland ionospheric disturbances related to the 2011 tsunamigenic earthquake. The ionosonde network consists of five transmitters and 20 receivers and can monitor regional ionosphere disturbances continuously and effectively. Based on the recorded electron density variations along the horizontal plane, the planar middle-scale ionospheric disturbances (MSTIDs) associated with the 2011 Tohoku tsunamigenic earthquake were detected more than 2000 km west of the epicenter about six hours later. The MSTIDs captured by the Digisonde, high-frequency (HF) Doppler measurement, and Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate (COSMIC) satellite provided more information about the far-field inland propagation characteristics of the westward propagating gravity waves. The results imply that the ionosonde network has the potential for remote sensing of ionospheric disturbances induced by tsunamigenic earthquakes and provide a perspective for investigating the propagation process of associated gravity waves.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21031000","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,2]],"date-time":"2021-02-02T13:01:12Z","timestamp":1612270872000},"page":"1000","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Middle-Scale Ionospheric Disturbances Observed by the Oblique-Incidence Ionosonde Detection Network in North China after the 2011 Tohoku Tsunamigenic Earthquake"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Jin","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geophysics &amp; Geomatics, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6690-4024","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gang","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Electronic Information School, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tao","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geophysics &amp; Geomatics, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhongxin","family":"Deng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The China Research Institute of Radio Wave Propagation (CRIRP), Qingdao 266107, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiangxiang","family":"Yan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geophysics &amp; Geomatics, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Na","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geophysics &amp; Geomatics, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"73","article-title":"Gravity Waves in the Atmosphere","volume":"239","author":"Hines","year":"1972","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1995","DOI":"10.1029\/JC081i012p01995","article-title":"On the possible detection of tsunamis by a monitoring of the ionosphere","volume":"81","author":"Peltier","year":"1976","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1002\/2015RS005907","article-title":"Analysis of traveling ionospheric disturbances (TIDs) in GPS TEC launched by the 2011 Tohoku earthquake","volume":"51","author":"Crowley","year":"2016","journal-title":"Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-019-0866-7","article-title":"Fluctuations on vertical profiles of the ionospheric electron density perturbed by the March 11, 2011 M9.0 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami","volume":"23","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"897","DOI":"10.5047\/eps.2011.05.017","article-title":"Seismo-traveling ionospheric disturbances of ionograms observed during the 2011 M w 9.0 Tohoku Earthquake","volume":"63","author":"Liu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Earth Planets Space"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"08306","DOI":"10.1029\/2012JA017952","article-title":"Rayleigh wave signature in ionograms induced by strong earthquakes","volume":"117","author":"Maruyama","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7177","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2016.2597165","article-title":"Multisite Remote Sensing for Tsunami-Induced Waves","volume":"54","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4736","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JA023511","article-title":"Vertical midscale ionospheric disturbances caused by surface seismic waves based on Irkutsk chirp ionosonde data in 2011\u20132016","volume":"122","author":"Berngardt","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"06319","article-title":"Ionospheric disturbances triggered by the 11 March 2011M9.0 Tohoku earthquake","volume":"116","author":"Liu","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"05320","DOI":"10.1029\/2010JA016060","article-title":"Detection and modeling of Rayleigh wave induced patterns in the ionosphere","volume":"116","author":"Rolland","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7914","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JA019825","article-title":"Pattern and evolution of seismo-ionospheric disturbances following the 2011 Tohoku earthquakes from GPS observations","volume":"119","author":"Jin","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1134\/S0016793214060218","article-title":"The response of the ionosphere to the earthquake in Japan on March 11, 2011 as estimated by different GPS-based methods","volume":"55","author":"Yasyukevich","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geomagn. Aeron."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Makela, J.J., Lognonn\u00e9, P., Hebert, H., Gehrels, T., Rolland, L., Allgeyer, S., Kherani, A., Occhipinti, G., Astafyeva, E., and Co\u00efsson, P. (2011). Imaging and modeling the ionospheric airglow response over Hawaii to the tsunami generated by the Tohoku earthquake of 11 March 2011. Geophys. Res. Lett., 38.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011GL047860"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3626","DOI":"10.1002\/jgra.50322","article-title":"From Sumatra 2004 to Tohoku-Oki 2011: The systematic GPS detection of the ionospheric signature induced by tsunamigenic earthquakes","volume":"118","author":"Occhipinti","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JA021638","article-title":"All-sky imaging of transglobal thermospheric gravity waves generated by the March 2011 Tohoku Earthquake","volume":"120","author":"Smith","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"02305","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JA017036","article-title":"Multi-instrument observation on co-seismic ionospheric effects after great Tohoku earthquake","volume":"117","author":"Hao","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1759","DOI":"10.1002\/2015GL067487","article-title":"The vertical propagation of disturbances triggered by seismic waves of the 11 March 2011 M 9.0 Tohoku earthquake over Taiwan","volume":"43","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4498","DOI":"10.1002\/2013JD021120","article-title":"Atmospheric gravity waves due to the Tohoku-Oki tsunami observed in the thermosphere by GOCE","volume":"119","author":"Garcia","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1002\/2014EA000054","article-title":"First tsunami gravity wave detection in ionospheric radio occultation data","volume":"2","author":"Coisson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Earth Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1002\/2016GL070764","article-title":"Satellite-based observations of tsunami-induced mesosphere airglow perturbations","volume":"44","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yan, X., Sun, Y., Yu, T., Liu, J.Y., Qi, Y., Xia, C., Zuo, X., and Yang, N. (2018). Stratosphere Perturbed by the 2011 Mw9.0 Tohoku Earthquake. Geophys. Res. Lett., 45.","DOI":"10.1029\/2018GL079046"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.5047\/eps.2011.06.035","article-title":"Ionospheric disturbances detected by GPS total electron content observation after the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake","volume":"63","author":"Tsugawa","year":"2011","journal-title":"Earth Planets Space"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"757","article-title":"Mid-point electron density profiles from oblique ionograms","volume":"39","author":"Huang","year":"1996","journal-title":"Ann. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1240","DOI":"10.1007\/s11431-012-4795-8","article-title":"Application of the oblique ionogram as vertical ionogram","volume":"55","author":"Chen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sci. China Ser. E Technol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jodogne, J.C., Alberca, L.F., and Krasheninnikov, I.V. (1996). Compatible analysis of vertical and oblique ionospheric sounding data. Annal. Geophys., 39.","DOI":"10.4401\/ag-4013"},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"653","article-title":"DQ-87 data processing system for geophysical observation (in Chinese)","volume":"30","author":"Xiao","year":"1987","journal-title":"Chin. J. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04304","DOI":"10.1029\/2006JA011671","article-title":"Morphological features of ionospheric response to typhoon","volume":"112","author":"Xiao","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Isaaks, E.H., and Srivastava, R.M. (1989). An Introduction to Applied Geostatistics, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1029\/2010RS004603","article-title":"Tsunami signature in the ionosphere: A simulation of OTH radar observations","volume":"46","author":"Coisson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4003","DOI":"10.1029\/2012RS005023","article-title":"Ionospheric signatures of Tohoku-Oki tsunami of March 11, 2011: Model comparisons near the epicenter","volume":"47","author":"Galvan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"847","DOI":"10.5047\/eps.2011.06.051","article-title":"Three-dimensional numerical modeling of tsunami-related internal gravity waves in the Hawaiian atmosphere","volume":"63","author":"Occhipinti","year":"2011","journal-title":"Earth Planets Space"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.5047\/eps.2011.07.015","article-title":"Numerical simulations of atmospheric waves excited by the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake","volume":"63","author":"Matsumura","year":"2011","journal-title":"Earth Planets Space"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earscirev.2015.05.003","article-title":"GNSS ionospheric seismology: Recent observation evidences and characteristics","volume":"147","author":"Jin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Earth-Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/srep46607","article-title":"Real-Time Detection of Tsunami Ionospheric Disturbances with a Stand-Alone GNSS Receiver: A Preliminary Feasibility Demonstration","volume":"7","author":"Savastano","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5062","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JA020986","article-title":"Lower thermospheric response to atmospheric gravity waves induced by the 2011 Tohoku tsunami","volume":"120","author":"Yu","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"268","article-title":"The Tohoku tsunami of 11 March 2011 as recorded on the Russian far east","volume":"31","author":"Shevchenko","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sci. Tsunami Hazard."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"06308","DOI":"10.1029\/2009JA014977","article-title":"Atmospheric airglow fluctuations due to a tsunami-driven gravity wave disturbance","volume":"115","author":"Hickey","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"05303","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JA017451","article-title":"Gravity wave propagation in a diffusively separated gas: Effects on the total gas","volume":"117","author":"Walterscheid","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1146","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JA023116","article-title":"Ionospheric signatures of gravity waves produced by the 2004 Sumatra and 2011 Tohoku tsunamis: A modeling study","volume":"122","author":"Yu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5076","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JD025673","article-title":"Tsunami-driven gravity waves in the presence of vertically varying background and tidal wind structures","volume":"122","author":"Laughman","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9748","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JA021430","article-title":"Excitation of gravity waves by ocean surface wave packets: Upward propagation and reconstruction of the thermospheric gravity wave field","volume":"120","author":"Vadas","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6618","DOI":"10.1002\/jgra.50578","article-title":"Preseismic ionospheric electron enhancements revisited","volume":"118","author":"Heki","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1029\/2008JA013063","article-title":"Midlatitude nighttime enhancement inFregion electron density from global COSMIC measurements under solar minimum winter condition","volume":"113","author":"Luan","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3914","DOI":"10.1002\/jgra.50326","article-title":"Teleseismic magnetic effects (TMDs) of 2011 Tohoku earthquake","volume":"118","author":"Hao","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/3\/1000\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:18:47Z","timestamp":1760159927000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/3\/1000"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,2]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s21031000"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21031000","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,2]]}}}