{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T01:48:18Z","timestamp":1760233698473,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,11]],"date-time":"2021-02-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1613001600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>At the micrometric scale, vessels or skin capillaries network architecture can provide useful information for human health management. In this paper, from simulation to in vitro, we investigate some limits and interests of optical feedback interferometry (OFI) for blood flow imaging of skin vascularization. In order to analyze the tissue scattering effect on OFI performances, a series of skin-tissue simulating optical phantoms have been designed, fabricated and characterized. The horizontal (2D) and vertical (depth penetration) sensing resolution of the OFI sensor have been estimated. The experimental results that we present on this study are showing a very good accordance with theoretical models. In the case of a skin phantom of 0.5 mm depth with a scattering coefficient from 0 to 10.8 mm\u22121, the presented OFI system is able to distinguish a pair of micro fluidic channels (100 \u00b5m \u00d7 100 \u00b5m) spaced by 10 \u00b5m. Eventually, an in vivo test on human skin is presented and, for the first time using an OFI sensor, a 2D blood flow image of a vein located just beneath the skin is computed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21041300","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,12]],"date-time":"2021-02-12T18:45:00Z","timestamp":1613155500000},"page":"1300","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Methods and Limits for Micro Scale Blood Vessel Flow Imaging in Scattering Media by Optical Feedback Interferometry: Application to Human Skin"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Adam","family":"Quotb","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"LAAS-CNRS, Universit\u00e9 de Toulouse, CNRS, INP-ENSEEIHT, 31400 Toulouse, France"}]},{"given":"Reza","family":"Atashkhooei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for the Development of Sensors, Instruments and Systems, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica deCatalunya (UPC-CD6), Rambla Sant Nebridi, 10, E08222 Terrassa, Spain"}]},{"given":"Simone","family":"Magaletti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LAAS-CNRS, Universit\u00e9 de Toulouse, CNRS, INP-ENSEEIHT, 31400 Toulouse, France"}]},{"given":"Francis","family":"Jayat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LAAS-CNRS, Universit\u00e9 de Toulouse, CNRS, INP-ENSEEIHT, 31400 Toulouse, France"}]},{"given":"Clement","family":"Tronche","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LAAS-CNRS, Universit\u00e9 de Toulouse, CNRS, INP-ENSEEIHT, 31400 Toulouse, France"}]},{"given":"Julien","family":"Goechnahts","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LAAS-CNRS, Universit\u00e9 de Toulouse, CNRS, INP-ENSEEIHT, 31400 Toulouse, France"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2934-5048","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Julien","family":"Perchoux","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LAAS-CNRS, Universit\u00e9 de Toulouse, CNRS, INP-ENSEEIHT, 31400 Toulouse, France"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1007\/s11517-010-0577-2","article-title":"A technique based on laser Doppler flowmetry and photoplethysmography for simultaneously monitoring blood flow at different tissue depths","volume":"48","author":"Hagblad","year":"2010","journal-title":"Med. Biol. Eng. Comput."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"8","article-title":"A Deep Learning Approach to Vascular Structure Segmentation in Dermoscopy Colour Images","volume":"2018","year":"2018","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1007\/s13534-013-0095-x","article-title":"Portable laser Doppler flowmeter for microcirculation detection","volume":"3","author":"Hu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biomed. Eng. Lett."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuwabara, K., Higuchi, Y., Ogasawara, T., Koizumi, H., and Haga, T. (2014, January 26\u201330). Wearable blood flowmeter appcessory with low-power laser Doppler signal processing for daily-life healthcare monitoring. Proceedings of the 2014 36th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, Chicago, IL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC.2014.6945063"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTQE.2013.2270279","article-title":"Self-Mixing Interferometry for Biomedical Signals Sensing","volume":"20","author":"Donati","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Perchoux, J., Quotb, A., Atashkhooei, R., Azcona, F.J., Ram\u00edrez-Miquet, E.E., Bernal, O., Jha, A., Luna-Arriaga, A., Yanez, C., and Caum, J. (2016). Current Developments on Optical Feedback Interferometry as an All-Optical Sensor for Biomedical Applications. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16050694"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2798","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.32.002798","article-title":"Laser Doppler imaging through tissues phantoms by using self-mixing interferometry with a laser diode","volume":"32","author":"Zakian","year":"2007","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2166","DOI":"10.1109\/3.64354","article-title":"A review of the optical properties of biological tissues","volume":"26","author":"Cheong","year":"1990","journal-title":"IEEE J. Quantum Electron."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1109\/JQE.1980.1070479","article-title":"External Optical Feedback Effects on Semiconductor Injection Laser Properties","volume":"QE-16","author":"Lang","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Quan. Electron."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23849","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.24.023849","article-title":"Optical feedback interferometry for microscale-flow sensing study: Numerical simulation and experimental validation","volume":"24","author":"Zhao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5844","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.31.005844","article-title":"Self-mixing laser-Doppler velocimetry of liquid flow and of blood perfusion in tissue","volume":"31","author":"Koelink","year":"1992","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"025001","DOI":"10.1117\/1.3369003","article-title":"Optical phantoms of varying geometry based on thin building blocks with controlled optical properties","volume":"15","author":"Bremmer","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756706","DOI":"10.1117\/12.842249","article-title":"Multilayer silicone phantoms for the evaluation of quantitative optical techniques in skin imaging","volume":"Volume 7567","author":"Saager","year":"2010","journal-title":"Design and Performance Validation of Phantoms Used in Conjunction with Optical Measurement of Tissue II"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1117\/1.3659228","article-title":"Handbook of Biomedical Optics, by David A Boas, Constantinos Pitris, and Nimmi Ramanujam","volume":"16","author":"Alfano","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1146","DOI":"10.1109\/10.42108","article-title":"Skin optics","volume":"36","author":"Jacques","year":"1989","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Atashkhooei, R., Quotb, A., and Royo, S. (2016). Method and Apparatus for Measuring the Collimated Transmittance of a Semi-Transparent Body. (EP16306631A)."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1619","DOI":"10.1016\/j.porgcoat.2014.05.005","article-title":"Theoretical analysis of light scattering properties of encapsulated rutile titanium dioxide pigments in dependent light scattering regime","volume":"77","author":"Auger","year":"2014","journal-title":"Prog. Org. Coatings"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1007\/s10103-007-0524-0","article-title":"Review of methodological developments in laser Doppler flowmetry","volume":"24","author":"Rajan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Lasers Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3681","DOI":"10.1364\/OPEX.13.003681","article-title":"Full-field laser Doppler perfusion imaging and monitoring with an intelligent CMOS camera","volume":"13","author":"Serov","year":"2005","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.27.000300","article-title":"Laser Doppler perfusion imaging with a complimentary metal oxide semiconductor image sensor","volume":"27","author":"Serov","year":"2002","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"064002","DOI":"10.1117\/1.2120467","article-title":"Polarized laser Doppler perfusion imaging\u2014reduction of movement-induced artifacts","volume":"10","author":"Karlsson","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bahadori, S., Immins, T., and Wainwright, T.W. (2017). A Novel Approach to Overcome Movement Artifact When Using a Laser Speckle Contrast Imaging System for Alternating Speeds of Blood Microcirculation. J. Vis. Exp. JoVE, 56415.","DOI":"10.3791\/56415-v"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"81","article-title":"Spatial and temporal variations in human skin blood flow","volume":"2","author":"Tenland","year":"1983","journal-title":"Int. J. Microcirc. Clin. Exp."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"367","article-title":"Biological zero in laser Doppler fluxmetry","volume":"7","author":"Caspary","year":"1988","journal-title":"Clin. Exp."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4757-2083-9_1","article-title":"History of Laser-Doppler Blood Flowmetry","volume":"Volume 107","author":"Shepherd","year":"1990","journal-title":"Laser-Doppler Blood Flowmetry"},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"89","article-title":"Biological zero in laser Doppler measurements in normal, ischaemic and inflamed human skin","volume":"12","author":"Abbot","year":"1993","journal-title":"Int. J. Microcirc. Clin. Exp."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"624","DOI":"10.1007\/s004240050826","article-title":"The biological zero signal in laser Doppler fluximetry-origins and practical implications","volume":"437","author":"Kernick","year":"1999","journal-title":"Pfl\u00fcgers Archiv"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.54.000312","article-title":"Effect of injection current and temperature on signal strength in a laser diode optical feedback interferometer","volume":"54","author":"Perchoux","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.17.9.090901","article-title":"Optical properties of human skin","volume":"17","author":"Lister","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duteil, L., Bernango, J.C., and Schalla, W. (1985). A Double Wavelength Laser Doppler System to Investigate Skin Microcirculation. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 439\u2013447.","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.1985.325452"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02442302","article-title":"Depth discrimination in laser Doppler skin blood flow measurement using different lasers","volume":"26","author":"Obeid","year":"1988","journal-title":"Med. Biol. Eng. Comput."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/4\/1300\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:22:57Z","timestamp":1760160177000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/4\/1300"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,11]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s21041300"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21041300","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,11]]}}}