{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T02:36:33Z","timestamp":1770777393754,"version":"3.50.0"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,18]],"date-time":"2021-02-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1613606400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["11904346"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["11904346"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004731","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Zhejiang Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["LQ19A040004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LQ19A040004"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004731","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Aiming at addressing the contradiction between the high-speed real-time positioning and multi-channel signal processing in multi-beam sonar systems, in this work we present a real-time multi-beam sonar system based on a Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) and Digital Signal Processing (DSP) from two perspectives, i.e., hardware implementation and software optimization. In terms of hardware, an efficient high-voltage pulse transmitting module and a multi-channel data acquisition module with time versus gain (TVG) compensation with characteristics such as low noise and high phase amplitude consistency, are proposed. In terms of algorithms, we study three beamforming methods, namely delay-and-sum (D&amp;S), direct-method (DM) and Chirp Zeta Transform (CZT). We compare the computational efficiency of DM and CZT in the digital domain. In terms of software, according to the transmission bandwidth of the Gigabit Ethernet and a serial rapid IO (SRIO) interface, the data transmission paths of the acquired data and the beam pattern between the FPGA, the DSP, and a personal computer (PC) are planned. A master-slave multi-core pipelined signal processing architecture is designed based on DSP, which enhances the data throughput of the signal processor by seven times as compared with that of the single-core operation. The experimental results reveal that the sound source level of the transmitting module is around 190.25 dB, the transmitting beam width is 64\u00b0 \u00d7 64\u00b0, the background noise of the acquisition module is less than 4 \u03bcVrms, the amplitude consistency error of each channel is less than \u22126.55 dB, and the phase consistency error is less than 0.2\u00b0. It is noteworthy that the beam number of the sonar system is 90 \u00d7 90, the scanning angle interval is 0.33\u00b0, the working distance ranges from 5 m to 40 m, and the maximum distance resolution is 0.384 m. In the positioning experiment performed in this work; the 3-D real-time position of the baffle placed in the detection sector is realized. Please note that the maximum deviation of azimuth is 2\u00b0, the maximum deviation of elevation is 2.3\u00b0, and the maximum distance deviation is 0.379 m.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21041425","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,18]],"date-time":"2021-02-18T21:59:58Z","timestamp":1613685598000},"page":"1425","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Design and Implementation of a Real-Time Multi-Beam Sonar System Based on FPGA and DSP"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6178-5399","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haowen","family":"Tian","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Acoustics Research, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou 310018, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shixu","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Acoustics Research, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou 310018, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Peng","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Acoustics Research, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou 310018, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Minyu","family":"Gong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Acoustics Research, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou 310018, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chao","family":"Shen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Acoustics Research, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou 310018, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van Trees, H.L. (2002). Optimum Array Processing Part IV of Detection, Estimation, and Modulation Theory, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/0471221104"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2015.2439851","article-title":"A Low-Complexity Real-Time 3-D Sonar Imaging System with a Cross Array","volume":"41","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.1986.1145209","article-title":"Measurement of seabed topography by multibeam sonar using cfft","volume":"11","author":"Okino","year":"1986","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yan, L., Piao, S., Yan, L., Xu, F., Liu, J., and Yang, J. (2018, January 22\u201325). High Precision Imaging Method Utilizing Calibration and Apodization in Multibeam Imaging Sonar. Proceedings of the OCEANS 2018 MTS\/IEEE Charleston, Charleston, SC, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/OCEANS.2018.8604736"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Baggeroer, A.B., and Cox, H. (1999, January 24\u201327). Passive Sonar Limits Upon Nulling Multiple Moving Ships with Large Aperture Arrays. Proceedings of the Asilomar Conference on Signals Systems and Computers, Pacific Grove, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Cox, H. (2000, January 17). Multi-rate adaptive beamforming (MRABF). Proceedings of the Sensor Array & Multichannel Signal Processing Workshop, Cambridge, MA, USA."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Johnson, D.H., and Dudgeon, D.E. (1993). Array Signal Processing: Concepts and Techniques, Prentice Hall."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1903","DOI":"10.1109\/5.899059","article-title":"Three-dimensional image generation and processing in underwater acoustic vision","volume":"88","author":"Murino","year":"2000","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2348","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2008.922111","article-title":"Devising an Affordable Sonar System for Underwater 3-D Vision","volume":"57","author":"Trucco","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1109\/79.689583","article-title":"The past, present, and the future of underwater acoustic signal processing","volume":"15","author":"Vaccaro","year":"1998","journal-title":"IEEE Signal Process. Mag."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2013.2278891","article-title":"Auv navigation and localization: A review","volume":"39","author":"Paull","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1049\/ip-b.1991.0035","article-title":"Class d voltage-switching mosfet power amplifier","volume":"138","author":"Kazimierczuk","year":"1991","journal-title":"Electr. Power Appl. IEEE Proc. B"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1109\/63.554167","article-title":"Performance requirements for power mosfet models","volume":"12","author":"Budihardjo","year":"1997","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Electron."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1742","DOI":"10.1109\/TIA.2009.2027203","article-title":"Application-oriented low-side gate drivers","volume":"45","author":"Hwu","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ali, R., Daut, I., Taib, S., Jamoshid, N.S., and Razak, A.R.A. (2010, January 23\u201324). Design of high-side MOSFET driver using discrete components for 24V operation. Proceedings of the Power Engineering & Optimization Conference, Shah Alam, Malaysia.","DOI":"10.1109\/PEOCO.2010.5559191"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Hurley, W.G. (2002, January 20\u201324). Optimizing core and winding design in high frequency transformers. Proceedings of the IEEE International Power Electronics Congress, Guadalajara, Mexico."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-624X(88)90055-8","article-title":"Design of matching networks for acoustic transducers","volume":"26","author":"Coates","year":"1988","journal-title":"Ultrasonics"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Gao, Y. (2013, January 10\u201314). Optimal design of preamplifiers for broadband passive sonar. Proceedings of the 2013 MTS\/IEEE OCEANS-Bergen, Bergen, Norway."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jensen, F.B., Kuperman, W.A., and Porter, M.B. (2011). Henrik Schmidt, Computational Ocean Acoustics; Springer Science & Business Media.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4419-8678-8"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, J., Ma, X., Yang, L., and Lin, G. (2014, January 18\u201320). A Large-Scale Sonar Signal Acquisition and Storage System Based on FPGA. Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Instrumentation & Measurement, Harbin, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/IMCCC.2014.13"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Bailey, D., Hughes-Jones, R., and Kelly, M. (May, January 29). Using FPGAs to Generate Gigabit Ethernet Data Transfers and Studies of the Network Performance of DAQ Protocols. Proceedings of the Real-time Conference, Batavia, IL, USA."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2080","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2009.2015523","article-title":"Three-dimensional acoustic imaging by chirp zeta transform digital beamforming","volume":"58","author":"Palmese","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2010.2054175","article-title":"An efficient digital czt beamforming design for near-field 3-d sonar imaging","volume":"35","author":"Palmese","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhan, Z.H., Hao, W., Tian, Y., Yao, D., and Wang, X. (2012, January 28\u201329). A Design of Versatile Image Processing Platform Based on the Dual Multi-core DSP and FPGA. Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium on Computational Intelligence & Design, Hangzhou, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISCID.2012.210"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, J., Yan, L., Xu, F., and Chen, T. (2019, January 27\u201331). An Improved Fast Real-time Imaging Approach Based on C6678 DSP Array and Parallel Pipeline in Sonar. Proceedings of the OCEANS 2019 MTS\/IEEE SEATTLE, Seattle, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.23919\/OCEANS40490.2019.8962797"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jian, G., Ming, D.Y., and Cheng, L.Y. (2019, January 28\u201331). Design and Implementation of High Speed Data Transmission for X-Band Dual Polarized Weather Radar. Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Meteorology Observations (ICMO), Chengdu, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICMO49322.2019.9025892"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kharin, A., Vityazev, S., and Vityazev, V. (September, January 28). Teaching multi-core DSP implementation on EVM C6678 board. Proceedings of the 2017 25th European Signal Processing Conference (EUSIPCO), Kos, Greek.","DOI":"10.23919\/EUSIPCO.2017.8081632"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1305","DOI":"10.1109\/TPEL.2004.833460","article-title":"Topologies of single-phase inverters for small distributed power generators: An overview","volume":"19","author":"Xue","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Electron."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/4\/1425\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:25:45Z","timestamp":1760160345000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/4\/1425"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,18]]},"references-count":28,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s21041425"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21041425","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,18]]}}}