{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,2]],"date-time":"2026-02-02T22:45:14Z","timestamp":1770072314543,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,24]],"date-time":"2021-02-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1614124800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007614","name":"Al Jouf University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["39-826"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["39-826"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007614","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Modulation detection techniques have received much attention in recent years due to their importance in the military and commercial applications, such as software-defined radio and cognitive radios. Most of the existing modulation detection algorithms address the detection dedicated to the non-cooperative systems only. In this work, we propose the detection of modulations in the multi-relay cooperative multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) systems for 5G communications in the presence of spatially correlated channels and imperfect channel state information (CSI). At the destination node, we extract the higher-order statistics of the received signals as the discriminating features. After applying the principal component analysis technique, we carry out a comparative study between the random committee and the AdaBoost machine learning techniques (MLTs) at low signal-to-noise ratio. The efficiency metrics, including the true positive rate, false positive rate, precision, recall, F-Measure, and the time taken to build the model, are used for the performance comparison. The simulation results show that the use of the random committee MLT, compared to the AdaBoost MLT, provides gain in terms of both the modulation detection and complexity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21051556","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,24]],"date-time":"2021-02-24T02:07:01Z","timestamp":1614132421000},"page":"1556","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Machine Learning for 5G MIMO Modulation Detection"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7863-6752","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haithem Ben","family":"Chikha","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Engineering and Networks Department, College of Computer and Information Sciences, Jouf University, Sakaka 72388, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8665-1669","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmad","family":"Almadhor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Engineering and Networks Department, College of Computer and Information Sciences, Jouf University, Sakaka 72388, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8520-7219","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Waqas","family":"Khalid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Industrial Technology, Korea University, Sejong 30019, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13282","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2963514","article-title":"Beam Management in Millimeter-Wave Communications for 5G and Beyond","volume":"8","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3238","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2019.2930621","article-title":"Elevation beamforming with full dimension MIMO architectures in 5G systems: A tutorial","volume":"21","author":"Nadeem","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4458","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2013.2265329","article-title":"Multi-Relay Turbo-Coded Cooperative Diversity Networks Over Nakagami-m Fading Channels","volume":"62","author":"Moualeu","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1109\/MVT.2019.2903343","article-title":"Outage-limit-approaching channel coding for future wireless communications: Root-protograph low-density parity-check codes","volume":"14","author":"Fang","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Veh. Technol. Mag."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1400","DOI":"10.1109\/LCOMM.2013.052413.130731","article-title":"Beamforming and combining in two-way AF MIMO relay networks","volume":"17","author":"Arti","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1895","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2014.2334631","article-title":"Maximal Ratio Transmission in AF MIMO Relay Systems Over Nakagami-Fading Channels","volume":"64","author":"Arti","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1109\/SURV.2011.032511.00136","article-title":"MIMO-aided near-capacity turbo transceivers: Taxonomy and performance versus complexity","volume":"14","author":"Sugiura","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2009.5273815","article-title":"Relay technologies for WiMAX and LTE-advanced mobile systems","volume":"47","author":"Yang","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Mostafa, H., and Marey, M. (2020). Soft-Information Assisted Modulation Recognition for Reconfigurable Radios. IEEE Wirel. Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"642","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2018.2849478","article-title":"A robust modulation classification method for PSK signals using random graphs","volume":"68","author":"Eldemerdash","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1859","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOMM.2008.060677","article-title":"Multiple antenna MMSE based downlink precoding with quantized feedback or channel mismatch","volume":"56","author":"Dabbagh","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2589","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2017.2784392","article-title":"On the energy efficient multi-pair two-way massive MIMO AF relaying with imperfect CSI and optimal power allocation","volume":"6","author":"Nguyen","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1109\/LCOMM.2015.2500898","article-title":"Joint modulation classification and antenna number detection for MIMO systems","volume":"20","author":"Turan","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohammadkarimi, M., Karami, E., and Dobre, O.A. (2015, January 21\u201323). A novel algorithm for blind detection of the number of transmit antenna. Proceedings of the International Conference on Cognitive Radio Oriented Wireless Networks, Doha, Qatar.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-24540-9_36"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1109\/LCOMM.2012.112812.121956","article-title":"Enumeration of base station antennas in a cognitive receiver by exploiting pilot patterns","volume":"17","author":"Oularbi","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2159","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2014.2335415","article-title":"Classification of STBC systems over frequency-selective channels","volume":"64","author":"Marey","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"942","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2014.2326107","article-title":"Identification of SM-OFDM and AL-OFDM signals based on their second-order cyclostationarity","volume":"64","author":"Karami","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5444","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2013.2278512","article-title":"Semi-blind receivers for joint symbol and channel estimation in space-time-frequency MIMO-OFDM systems","volume":"61","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4219","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2012.2196695","article-title":"SIMO channel estimation using space-time signal subspace projection and soft information","volume":"60","author":"Cai","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ullah, R., Marwat, S.N.K., Ahmad, A.M., Ahmed, S., Hafeez, A., Kamal, T., and Tufail, M. (2020). A Machine Learning Approach for 5G SINR Prediction. Electronics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics9101660"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ben Chikha, H. (2018, January 15\u201318). Performance of AdaBoost in modulation recognition for spatially-correlated cooperative MIMO systems. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking Conference (WCNC), Barcelona, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/WCNC.2018.8377377"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-com.2016.0335","article-title":"Identification of superposed modulations for two-way relaying MIMO systems with physical-layer network coding","volume":"11","author":"Chaoui","year":"2017","journal-title":"IET Commun."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1321","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aeue.2016.07.001","article-title":"Modulation recognition in the 868 MHz band using classification trees and random forests","volume":"70","author":"Lau","year":"2016","journal-title":"AEU-Int. J. Electron. Commun."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1109\/WCL.2013.111113.130655","article-title":"Modulation Recognition for MIMO Relaying Broadcast Channels with Direct Link","volume":"3","author":"Dayoub","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ben Chikha, W., Dayoub, I., and Attia, R. (2014, January 3\u20136). Modulation detection in intelligent transportation systems based on cooperative MIMO networks over nakagami-m fading. Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Electrical Sciences and Technologies in Maghreb (CISTEM), Tunis, Tunisia.","DOI":"10.1109\/CISTEM.2014.7076963"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5141","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2889076","article-title":"Machine learning model for adaptive modulation of multi-stream in MIMO-OFDM system","volume":"7","author":"Ha","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3062","DOI":"10.1109\/TIT.2004.838089","article-title":"Cooperative diversity in wireless networks: Efficient protocols and outage behavior","volume":"50","author":"Laneman","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOMM.2004.840638","article-title":"A vector-perturbation technique for near-capacity multiantenna multiuser communication-part I: Channel inversion and regularization","volume":"53","author":"Peel","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1109\/WCL.2012.112311.110067","article-title":"Efficient linear transmission strategy for MIMO relaying broadcast channels with direct links","volume":"1","author":"Wan","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1109\/26.837052","article-title":"Fading correlation and its effect on the capacity of multielement antenna systems","volume":"48","author":"Shiu","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1109\/4234.951380","article-title":"Channel capacity of MIMO architecture using the exponential correlation matrix","volume":"5","author":"Loyka","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Van Zelst, A., and Hammerschmidt, J. (2002, January 17\u201324). A single coefficient spatial correlation model for multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) radio channels. Proceedings of the URSI General Assembly, Maastricht, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1109\/LSP.2009.2036877","article-title":"Robust linear beamforming for MIMO relay broadcast channel with limited feedback","volume":"17","author":"Zhang","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Signal Process. Lett."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thornton, C., Hutter, F., Hoos, H.H., and Leyton-Brown, K. (2013, January 11\u201314). Auto-WEKA: Combined selection and hyperparameter optimization of classification algorithms. Proceedings of the 19th ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining, Chicago, IL, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2487575.2487629"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1109\/26.837045","article-title":"Hierarchical digital modulation classification using cumulants","volume":"48","author":"Swami","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-com:20050176","article-title":"Survey of automatic modulation classification techniques: Classical approaches and new trends","volume":"1","author":"Dobre","year":"2007","journal-title":"IET Commun."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"McCullagh, P. (1987). Tensor Methods in Statistics, Chapman Hall."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spooner, C.M. (2001, January 4\u20137). On the Utility of Sixth-Order Cyclic Cumulants for RF Signal Classification. Proceedings of the Conference Record of Thirty-Fifth Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems and Computers, Pacific Grove, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ACSSC.2001.987051"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1672","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2008.114","article-title":"Principal component analysis based on L1-norm maximization","volume":"30","author":"Kwak","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Cutler, A., and Zhao, G. (1999). Fast Classification Using Perfect Random Trees, Utah State University."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Freund, Y., and Schapire, R.E. (1995, January 13\u201315). A desicion-theoretic generalization of on-line learning and an application to boosting. Proceedings of the European Conference on Computational Learning Theory, Barcelona, Spain.","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-59119-2_166"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Riedmiller, M., and Braun, H. (April, January 28). A direct adaptive method for faster backpropagation learning: The RPROP algorithm. Proceedings of the IEEE international conference on neural networks, San Francisco, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Refaeilzadeh, P., Tang, L., and Liu, H. (2009). Cross-Validation. Encycl. Database Syst., 5.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-39940-9_565"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/5\/1556\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:27:27Z","timestamp":1760160447000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/5\/1556"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,24]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3]]}},"alternative-id":["s21051556"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21051556","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,24]]}}}