{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T01:50:59Z","timestamp":1760233859009,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,25]],"date-time":"2021-02-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1614211200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003725","name":"National Research Foundation of Korea","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NRF-2018-Global Ph.D. Fellowship Program"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2018-Global Ph.D. Fellowship Program"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003725","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Ulsan National Institute of Science &amp; Technology","award":["1.200051.01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1.200051.01"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A new gamma-ray sensor, which could be employed in harsh underwater conditions, was developed using YAlO3(Ce) single crystal and carbon nanotube reinforced polyetheretherketone (CNT\/PEEK). The sensor is compact, highly sensitive and stable, by providing real-time gross counts and an accumulated spectrum for fresh, saline, or contaminated water conditions. The sensor was tested in a water tank for quantification of the limit of detections. The \u03a651 \u00d7 51 mm2 YAlO3(Ce) crystal exhibits a nearly perfect proportionality with a correlation of over 0.999 in terms of light yield per energy and possesses a high energy resolution. The chemically stable CNT\/PEEK window material further enhances the detection efficiency by minimizing the background counts from penetrating gamma-rays. Data timeliness was obtained for regulation-based minimum detectable activity targets within 300 s. For a source-detector distance of up to 300 mm in water, the gross counts demonstrate the existence of radionuclides (Cs-137 and Co-60), owing to their higher efficiency (max. ~15 times) than those of the photopeak counts. Such differences between efficiency values are more likely in water than in air because of the high density of water, resulting in an increased build-up of scattered photons. The proposed sensor is suitable for autonomous underwater systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21051606","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,26]],"date-time":"2021-02-26T04:36:24Z","timestamp":1614314184000},"page":"1606","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Gamma-Ray Sensor Using YAlO3(Ce) Single Crystal and CNT\/PEEK with High Sensitivity and Stability under Harsh Underwater Conditions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2969-2701","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chanki","family":"Lee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nuclear Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, 50 UNIST-gil, Ulju-gun, Ulsan 44919, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hee Reyoung","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nuclear Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, 50 UNIST-gil, Ulju-gun, Ulsan 44919, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"KINS (2017). Marine Environmental Radioactivity Survey, KINS."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Collins, T., and Hubbard, G. (2001). Technical Study of Spent Fuel Pool Accident Risk at Decommissioning Nuclear Power Plants."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5984","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1120794109","article-title":"Fukushima-derived radionuclides in the ocean and biota off Japan","volume":"109","author":"Buesseler","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-9002(03)01116-1","article-title":"Devices and methods used for radiation monitoring of sea water during salvage and transportation of the Kursk nuclear submarine to dock","volume":"505","author":"Baranov","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. A Accel. Spectrometers Detect. Assoc. Equip."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nima.2004.10.001","article-title":"Response function calculation of an underwater gamma ray NaI(Tl) spectrometer","volume":"539","author":"Vlachos","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. A Accel. Spectrometers Detect. Assoc. Equip."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1419","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apradiso.2008.02.064","article-title":"An autonomous in situ detection system for radioactivity measurements in the marine environment","volume":"66","author":"Tsabaris","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Radiat. Isot."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nima.2010.06.248","article-title":"GEMS: Underwater spectrometer for long-term radioactivity measurements","volume":"626","author":"Sartini","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. A Accel. Spectrometers Detect. Assoc. Equip."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nima.2018.08.001","article-title":"Autonomous NaI(Tl) gamma-ray spectrometer for in situ underwater measurements","volume":"908","author":"Naumenko","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. A Accel. Spectrometers Detect. Assoc. Equip."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apradiso.2016.12.016","article-title":"Optimization of an underwater in-situ LaBr 3: Ce spectrometer with energy self-calibration and efficiency calibration","volume":"121","author":"Zeng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Radiat. Isot."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1016\/j.net.2018.03.023","article-title":"Development of low-cost, compact, real-time, and wireless radiation monitoring system in underwater environment","volume":"50","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nucl. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvrad.2019.03.021","article-title":"Development and optimization of an underwater in-situ cerium bromide spectrometer for radioactivity measurements in the aquatic environment","volume":"204","author":"Tsabaris","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Environ. Radioact."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8920","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2019.2921550","article-title":"Conceptual Development of Sensing Module Applied to Autonomous Radiation Monitoring System for Marine Environment","volume":"19","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, G., Shi, Y., Sun, X., and Shen, W. (2019). Internet of Things in Marine Environment Monitoring: A Review. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19071711"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2007.895057","article-title":"Path Planning for Autonomous Underwater Vehicles","volume":"23","author":"Pailhas","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, X., Shan, X., Shen, Z., Xie, T., and Miao, J. (2019). A New Self-Powered Sensor Using the Radial Field Piezoelectric Diaphragm in d33 Mode for Detecting Underwater Disturbances. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19040962"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3376921","article-title":"ahoi: Inexpensive, low-power communication and localization for underwater sensor networks and \u03bcAUVs","volume":"16","author":"Renner","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1840065","DOI":"10.1142\/S0217979218400659","article-title":"An analysis of carbon fiber hull structure of a new underwater glider","volume":"32","author":"Kang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Mod. Phys. B"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1080\/21642583.2018.1477634","article-title":"Autonomous robots for harsh environments: A holistic overview of current solutions and ongoing challenges","volume":"6","author":"Wong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Syst. Sci. Control Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"IAEA (2018). Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material: Specific Safety Requirements No. SSR-6 (Rev. 1), IAEA."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-9002(98)01232-7","article-title":"A high-energy resolution observed from a YAP:Ce scintillator","volume":"421","author":"Kapusta","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nucl. Instruments Methods Phys. Res. Sect. A Accel. Spectrometers Detect. Assoc. Equip."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1016\/S0920-5632(97)00634-8","article-title":"Energy response and resolution of YAP: Ce matrix for imaging applications in nuclear medicine","volume":"61","author":"Malatesta","year":"1998","journal-title":"Nucl. Phys. B-Proc. Suppl."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"P02023","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-0221\/13\/02\/P02023","article-title":"Evaluation of GAGG:Ce scintillators for future space applications","volume":"13","author":"Yoneyama","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Pelowitz, D., Goorley, T., James, M., Booth, T., Brown, F., Bull, J., Cox, L., Durkee, J., Elson, J., and Fensin, M. (2013). MCNP6 User\u2019s Manual Version 1.0."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1016\/j.radmeas.2009.10.012","article-title":"Energy resolution and non-proportionality of scintillation detectors\u2014New observations","volume":"45","year":"2010","journal-title":"Radiat. Meas."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Lamberg, P., and Tommiska, J. (2009). HSC Chemistry 7.0 User\u2019s Guide, Outotec."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moss, D.R. (2004). Pressure Vessel Design Manual, Elsevier. [3rd ed.].","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-075067740-0\/50002-0"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"1","article-title":"Optimization of machining parameters on AL 6061 alloy using response surface methodology","volume":"1","author":"Devkumar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Knoll, G.F. (2010). Radiation Detection and Measurement, John Wiley & Sons. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miller, P.D., and Boyd, W.K. (1967). Corrosion of Beryllium, Battelle Memorial Institute.","DOI":"10.21236\/AD0824446"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15153","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.26.015153","article-title":"Accurate effective atomic number determination with polychromatic grating-based phase-contrast computed tomography","volume":"26","author":"Birnbacher","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compscitech.2011.08.018","article-title":"Temperature dependent electrical conductivity of CNT\u2013PEEK composites","volume":"72","author":"Mohiuddin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Compos. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Sullivan, M. (2011). Fundamentals of Statistics, Prentice Hall. [3rd ed.]."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/5\/1606\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:28:29Z","timestamp":1760160509000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/5\/1606"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,25]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3]]}},"alternative-id":["s21051606"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21051606","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,25]]}}}