{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,3]],"date-time":"2026-05-03T07:11:17Z","timestamp":1777792277324,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,1]],"date-time":"2021-03-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1614556800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>To better understand the real-time biomechanics of soft tissues under sudden mechanical loads such as traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI), it is important to improve in vitro models. During a traumatic SCI, the spinal cord suffers high-velocity compression. The evaluation of spinal canal occlusion with a sensor is required in order to investigate the degree of spinal compression and the fast biomechanical processes involved. Unfortunately, available techniques suffer with drawbacks such as the inability to measure transverse compression and impractically large response times. In this work, an optical pressure sensing scheme based on a fiber Bragg grating and a narrow-band filter was designed to detect and demonstrate the transverse compression inside a spinal cord surrogate in real-time. The response time of the proposed scheme was 20 microseconds; a five orders of magnitude enhancement over comparable schemes that depend on costly and slower optical spectral analyzers. We further showed that this improvement in speed comes with a negligible loss in sensitivity. This study is another step towards better understanding the complex biomechanics involved during a traumatic SCI, using a method capable of probing the related internal strains with high-spatiotemporal resolution.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21051671","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,1]],"date-time":"2021-03-01T03:35:40Z","timestamp":1614569740000},"page":"1671","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["A Sensitive and Fast Fiber Bragg Grating-Based Investigation of the Biomechanical Dynamics of In Vitro Spinal Cord Injuries"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Satyendra Kumar","family":"Mishra","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"\u00c9cole de Technologie Sup\u00e9rieure, 1100 Notre-Dame Street West, Montreal, QC H3C 1K3, Canada"},{"name":"H\u00f4pital du Sacr\u00e9-C\u0153ur de Montr\u00e9al, 5400 Gouin Boul. West, Montreal, QC H4J 1C5, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jean-Marc","family":"Mac-Thiong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"H\u00f4pital du Sacr\u00e9-C\u0153ur de Montr\u00e9al, 5400 Gouin Boul. West, Montreal, QC H4J 1C5, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"\u00c9ric","family":"Wagnac","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"\u00c9cole de Technologie Sup\u00e9rieure, 1100 Notre-Dame Street West, Montreal, QC H3C 1K3, Canada"},{"name":"H\u00f4pital du Sacr\u00e9-C\u0153ur de Montr\u00e9al, 5400 Gouin Boul. West, Montreal, QC H4J 1C5, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1428-8191","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yvan","family":"Petit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"\u00c9cole de Technologie Sup\u00e9rieure, 1100 Notre-Dame Street West, Montreal, QC H3C 1K3, Canada"},{"name":"H\u00f4pital du Sacr\u00e9-C\u0153ur de Montr\u00e9al, 5400 Gouin Boul. West, Montreal, QC H4J 1C5, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1046-9489","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bora","family":"Ung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"\u00c9cole de Technologie Sup\u00e9rieure, 1100 Notre-Dame Street West, Montreal, QC H3C 1K3, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiomech.2019.07.016","article-title":"Engineering approaches for characterizing soft tissue mechanical properties: A review","volume":"69","author":"Rao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Biomech. (Bristol. Avon.)"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Griffin, M., Premakumar, Y., Seifalian, A., Butler, P.E., and Szarko, M. (2016). Biomechanical characterization of human soft tissues using indentation and tensile testing. J. Vis., 54872.","DOI":"10.3791\/54872-v"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Westwood, J.D. (2001). Medicine Meets Virtual Reality 2001: Outer Space, Inner Space, Virtual Space, IOS Press."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Westwood, J.D. (2002). Medicine Meets Virtual Reality 02\/10: Digital Upgrades, Applying Moore\u2019s Law to Health, IOS Press."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Westwood, J.D. (2003). Medicine Meets Virtual Reality 11: NextMed: Health Horizon, IOS Press."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Henize, S., and Echtermeyer, T.A. (2018). A Running Reference Analysis Method to Greatly Improve Optical Backscatter Reflectometry Strain Data from the Inside of Hardening and Shrinking Materials. Appl. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/app8071137"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1387","DOI":"10.1109\/LPT.2008.926832","article-title":"Single-mode fiber refractive index sensor based on core-offset attenuators","volume":"20","author":"Tian","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2296","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2008.2007507","article-title":"In-line single-mode optical fiber interferometric refractive index sensors","volume":"27","author":"Tian","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Lightwave Technol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2017.12.077","article-title":"Review of salinity measurement technology based on optical fiber sensor","volume":"260","author":"Qian","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8921","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2016.2617091","article-title":"Sensitivity characteristics of multimode-interference optical-fiber temperature-sensor with solid cladding material","volume":"16","author":"Fukano","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2012.04.014","article-title":"In-line fiber Mach-Zehnder interferometer for simultaneous measurement of refractive index and temperature based on thinned fiber","volume":"180","author":"Lecheng","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1548","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.36.001548","article-title":"High-sensitivity temperature sensor based on an alcohol-filled photonic crystal fiber loop mirror","volume":"36","author":"Qian","year":"2011","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2027","DOI":"10.1109\/LPT.2007.908775","article-title":"Simultaneous temperature and strain measurement using two types of high-birefringence fibers in Sagnac loop mirror","volume":"19","author":"Sun","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1109\/LPT.2012.2183344","article-title":"Temperature and strain sensing with femtosecond laser written Bragg gratings in defect and non-defect suspended-silica-core fibers","volume":"24","author":"Fernande","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optcom.2016.10.005","article-title":"In-fiber rectangular air Fabry-Perot strain sensor based on high-precision fiber cutting platform","volume":"384","author":"Zhao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Opt. Commun."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1085","DOI":"10.1109\/LPT.2017.2702573","article-title":"Highly strain and bending sensitive micro tapered long-period fiber gratings","volume":"29","author":"Ren","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3351","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2015.2404813","article-title":"Bent fiber interferometer","volume":"33","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Lightwave Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3115","DOI":"10.3390\/s18093115","article-title":"Fibre Bragg Grating Based Strain Sensors: Review of Technology and Applications","volume":"18","author":"Campanella","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"13","article-title":"Translational research in spinal cord injury: A survey of opinion from the SCI community","volume":"48","author":"Kwon","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"43","article-title":"the biomechanical analysis of the traumatic cervical spinal cord injury using finite element approach","volume":"10","author":"Czyz","year":"2008","journal-title":"Acta Bioeng. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1097\/00007632-200001010-00010","article-title":"Canal geometry changes associated with axial compression cervical spine fracture","volume":"25","author":"Carter","year":"2000","journal-title":"Spine"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1710","DOI":"10.1097\/00007632-199708010-00005","article-title":"the effect of post-injury spinal position on canal occlusion in a cervical spine burst fracture model","volume":"22","author":"Ching","year":"1997","journal-title":"Spine"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"878","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2009.01.036","article-title":"The development of an improved physical surrogate model of the human spinal cord-tension and transverse compression","volume":"42","author":"Kroeker","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2565","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2011.06.015","article-title":"Spinal cord deformation during simulated head- first impact injuries","volume":"44","author":"Saari","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2572","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2017.5478","article-title":"High-speed fluoroscopy to measure dynamic spinal cord deformation in an vivo Rat model","volume":"35","author":"Lucas","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1285","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-015-1412-6","article-title":"In vivo measurement of cervical spinal cord deformation during traumatic spinal cord injury in a Rodent model","volume":"44","author":"Bhatanagar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"973","DOI":"10.1097\/00007632-199404150-00017","article-title":"Geometric changes in the cervical spinal canal during impact","volume":"19","author":"Chang","year":"1994","journal-title":"Spine"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medengphy.2017.06.033","article-title":"Development of an instrumented spinal cord surrogate using optical fibers: A feasibility study","volume":"48","author":"Facchinello","year":"2017","journal-title":"Med. Eng. Phys."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Diotalevi, L., Petit, Y., Peyrache, L.-M., Facchinello, Y., Mac-Thiong, J.M., and Wagnac, E. (2019, January 23\u201327). A novel spinal cord surrogate for the study of compressive traumatic spinal cord injuries. Proceedings of the 2019 41st Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), Berlin, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC.2019.8857641"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2631","DOI":"10.3390\/s130202631","article-title":"On the Effects of the Lateral Strains on the Fiber Bragg Grating Response","volume":"13","author":"Marco","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-003-0625-9","article-title":"A dynamic investigations of the burst fracture process using a combined experimental and finite element approach","volume":"13","author":"Wilcox","year":"2004","journal-title":"Eur. Spine J."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/5\/1671\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:30:44Z","timestamp":1760160644000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/5\/1671"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,1]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3]]}},"alternative-id":["s21051671"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21051671","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,1]]}}}