{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T07:37:23Z","timestamp":1772782643955,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,8]],"date-time":"2021-03-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1615161600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Malaysian Ministry of Education (MOE)","award":["TRGS 9026-00001 (TRGS\/1\/2018\/UNIMAP\/02\/4\/1) titled \u201cDetermination and Characteri-zation of Radio Frequency Signal for Moisture Sensing in Rice Grain Silos\u201d."],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TRGS 9026-00001 (TRGS\/1\/2018\/UNIMAP\/02\/4\/1) titled \u201cDetermination and Characteri-zation of Radio Frequency Signal for Moisture Sensing in Rice Grain Silos\u201d."]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Seasonal crops require reliable storage conditions to protect the yield once harvested. For long term storage, controlling the moisture content level in grains is challenging because existing moisture measuring techniques are time-consuming and laborious as measurements are carried out manually. The measurements are carried out using a sample and moisture may be unevenly distributed inside the silo\/bin. Numerous studies have been conducted to measure the moisture content in grains utilising dielectric properties. To the best of authors\u2019 knowledge, the utilisation of low-cost wireless technology operating in the 2.4 GHz and 915 MHz ISM bands such as Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) and Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) have not been widely investigated. This study focuses on the characterisation of 2.4 GHz Radio Frequency (RF) transceivers using ZigBee Standard and 868 to 915 MHz UHF RFID transceiver for moisture content classification and prediction using Artificial Neural Network (ANN) models. The Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) from the wireless transceivers is used for moisture content prediction in rice. Four samples (2 kg of rice each) were conditioned to 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25% moisture contents. The RSSI from both systems were obtained and processed. The processed data is used as input to different ANNs models such as Support Vector Machine (SVM), K-Nearest Neighbour (KNN), Random Forest, and Multi-layer Perceptron (MLP). The results show that the Random Forest method with one input feature (RSSI_WSN) provides the highest accuracy of 87% compared to the other four models. All models show more than 98% accuracy when two input features (RSSI_WSN and RSSI_TAG2) are used. Hence, Random Forest is a reliable model that can be used to predict the moisture content level in rice as it gives a high accuracy even when only one input feature is used.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21051875","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,8]],"date-time":"2021-03-08T12:12:18Z","timestamp":1615205538000},"page":"1875","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":45,"title":["RF-Based Moisture Content Determination in Rice Using Machine Learning Techniques"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8528-8351","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Noraini","family":"Azmi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Electronic Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Arau 02600, Perlis, Malaysia"},{"name":"Advanced Sensor Technology, Centre of Exellence (CEASTech), Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Arau 02600, Perlis, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2547-3934","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Latifah Munirah","family":"Kamarudin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Electronic Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Arau 02600, Perlis, Malaysia"},{"name":"Advanced Sensor Technology, Centre of Exellence (CEASTech), Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Arau 02600, Perlis, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7108-215X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ammar","family":"Zakaria","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Advanced Sensor Technology, Centre of Exellence (CEASTech), Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Arau 02600, Perlis, Malaysia"},{"name":"Faculty of Electrical Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Arau 02600, Perlis, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1125-1978","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David Lorater","family":"Ndzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computing, Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley PA1 2BE, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0933-5566","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohd Hafiz Fazalul","family":"Rahiman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Advanced Sensor Technology, Centre of Exellence (CEASTech), Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Arau 02600, Perlis, Malaysia"},{"name":"Faculty of Electrical Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Arau 02600, Perlis, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3557-2204","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Syed Muhammad Mamduh Syed","family":"Zakaria","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Electronic Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Arau 02600, Perlis, Malaysia"},{"name":"Advanced Sensor Technology, Centre of Exellence (CEASTech), Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Arau 02600, Perlis, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0271-1722","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Latifah","family":"Mohamed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Electrical Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Arau 02600, Perlis, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2014.12.011","article-title":"Does climate change affect period, available field time and required capacities for grain harvesting in Brandenburg, Germany?","volume":"203","author":"Prochnow","year":"2015","journal-title":"Agric. 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