{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]],"date-time":"2026-05-20T00:13:46Z","timestamp":1779236026359,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,18]],"date-time":"2021-03-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1616025600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Safety in human\u2013machine cooperation is the current challenge in robotics. Safe human\u2013robot interaction requires the development of sensors that detect human presence in the robot\u2019s workspace. Detection of this presence should occur before the physical collision of the robot with the human. Human to robot proximity detection should be very fast, allowing machine elements deceleration to velocities safe for human\u2013machine collision. The paper presents a new, low-cost design of distributed robotic skin, which allows real-time measurements of the human body parts proximity. The main advantages of the proposed solution are low cost of its implementation based on comb electrodes matrix and real-time operation due to fast and simple electronic design. The main contribution is the new idea of measuring the distance to human body parts by measuring the operating frequency of a rectangular signal generator, which depends on the capacity of the open capacitor. This capacitor is formed between the comb electrodes matrix and a reference plate located next to the matrix. The capacitance of the open capacitor changes if a human body part is in vicinity. The application of the developed device can be very wide. For example, in the field of cooperative robots, it can lead to the improvement of human\u2013machine interfaces and increased safety of human\u2013machine cooperation. The proposed construction can help to meet the increasing requirements for cooperative robots.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21062138","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,18]],"date-time":"2021-03-18T22:19:36Z","timestamp":1616105976000},"page":"2138","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Human Body Parts Proximity Measurement Using Distributed Tactile Robotic Skin"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0028-0968","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jan","family":"Klimaszewski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Mechatronics, Institute of Automatic Control and Robotics, A. Boboli 8 St., 02-525 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6986-251X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Micha\u0142","family":"W\u0142adzi\u0144ski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Mechatronics, Institute of Metrology and Biomedical Engineering, A. Boboli 8 St., 02-525 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Klimaszewski, J., Janczak, D., and Piorun, P. (2019). Tactile Robotic Skin with Pressure Direction Detection. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19214697"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gerratt, A.P., Sommer, N., Lacour, S.P., and Billard, A. (2014, January 18\u201320). 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