{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,6]],"date-time":"2026-06-06T16:11:18Z","timestamp":1780762278462,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":104,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,18]],"date-time":"2021-03-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1616025600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Processing and control systems based on artificial intelligence (AI) have progressively improved mobile robotic exoskeletons used in upper-limb motor rehabilitation. This systematic review presents the advances and trends of those technologies. A literature search was performed in Scopus, IEEE Xplore, Web of Science, and PubMed using the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) methodology with three main inclusion criteria: (a) motor or neuromotor rehabilitation for upper limbs, (b) mobile robotic exoskeletons, and (c) AI. The period under investigation spanned from 2016 to 2020, resulting in 30 articles that met the criteria. The literature showed the use of artificial neural networks (40%), adaptive algorithms (20%), and other mixed AI techniques (40%). Additionally, it was found that in only 16% of the articles, developments focused on neuromotor rehabilitation. The main trend in the research is the development of wearable robotic exoskeletons (53%) and the fusion of data collected from multiple sensors that enrich the training of intelligent algorithms. There is a latent need to develop more reliable systems through clinical validation and improvement of technical characteristics, such as weight\/dimensions of devices, in order to have positive impacts on the rehabilitation process and improve the interactions among patients, teams of health professionals, and technology.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21062146","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,18]],"date-time":"2021-03-18T22:19:36Z","timestamp":1616105976000},"page":"2146","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":162,"title":["Artificial Intelligence-Based Wearable Robotic Exoskeletons for Upper Limb Rehabilitation: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2105-1742","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuel Andr\u00e9s","family":"V\u00e9lez-Guerrero","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Software Research Group, Universidad Pedag\u00f3gica y Tecnol\u00f3gica de Colombia, Tunja 150002, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9894-8737","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mauro","family":"Callejas-Cuervo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science, Universidad Pedag\u00f3gica y Tecnol\u00f3gica de Colombia, Tunja 150002, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stefano","family":"Mazzoleni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Information Engineering, Polytechnic University of Bari, 70126 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization, and The World Bank (2011). World Report on Disability, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Mathers, C., Fat, D.M., Boerma, J.T., and World Health Organization (2008). The Global Burden of Disease: 2004 Update, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1080\/02615470309140","article-title":"Education and training for direct care workers","volume":"22","author":"Mcfarlane","year":"2003","journal-title":"Soc. Work Educ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.39059.456794.68","article-title":"Review of stroke rehabilitation","volume":"334","author":"Young","year":"2007","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2004.06.003","article-title":"Is stroke the most common cause of disability?","volume":"13","author":"Adamson","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Stroke Cerebrovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0038-1649503","article-title":"Global Burden of Stroke","volume":"38","author":"Katan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Semin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbmt.2018.08.002","article-title":"The management of shoulder impingement and related disorders: A systematic review on diagnostic accuracy of physical tests and manual therapy efficacy","volume":"23","author":"Innocenti","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Bodyw. Mov. Ther."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1177\/1357633X17723368","article-title":"Efficacy of tele-rehabilitation compared with office-based physical therapy in patients with knee osteoarthritis: A randomized clinical trial","volume":"24","author":"Azma","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Telemed. Telecare"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1177\/0269215518808000","article-title":"What factors affect clinical decision-making about access to stroke rehabilitation? A systematic review","volume":"33","author":"Longley","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1142\/S0219843607001163","article-title":"When were acitve exoskeletons actually born?","volume":"4","author":"Vukobratovic","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum. Robot."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1109\/MRA.2007.339622","article-title":"Prosthetics, exoskeletons, and rehabilitation [Grand Challenges of Robotics]","volume":"14","author":"Dellon","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Mag."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1109\/MEMB.2010.936548","article-title":"Rehabilitation Exoskeletal Robotics","volume":"29","author":"Pons","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Mag."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.5312\/wjo.v9.i9.112","article-title":"Robotic exoskeletons: The current pros and cons","volume":"9","author":"Gorgey","year":"2018","journal-title":"World J. Orthop."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-017-0229-y","article-title":"Interactive wearable systems for upper body rehabilitation: A systematic review","volume":"14","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bouteraa, Y., and Ben Abdallah, I. (2016, January 21\u201324). Exoskeleton robots for upper-limb rehabilitation. Proceedings of the 13th International Multi-Conference on Systems, Signals and Devices, SSD 2016, Leipzig, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/SSD.2016.7473769"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"163","article-title":"RUPERT: An exoskeleton robot for assisting rehabilitation of arm functions","volume":"1","author":"Balasubramanian","year":"2008","journal-title":"Virtual Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1007\/s13311-018-0642-3","article-title":"Robotic Rehabilitation and Spinal Cord Injury: A Narrative Review","volume":"15","author":"Mekki","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Gilhooly, R. (2020, November 30). Exoskeletons Await in Work\/Care Closet. Available online: http:\/\/www.japantimes.co.jp\/life\/2012\/06\/17\/general\/exoskeletons-await-in-workcare-closet."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medengphy.2018.07.017","article-title":"Comparative study of actuation systems for portable upper limb exoskeletons","volume":"60","author":"Manna","year":"2018","journal-title":"Med. Eng. Phys."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-23247-3_11","article-title":"Self-adaptative and coevolving memetic algorithms","volume":"379","author":"Smith","year":"2012","journal-title":"Stud. Comput. Intell."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liberati, A., Altman, D.G., Tetzlaff, J., Mulrow, C., G\u00f8tzsche, P.C., Ioannidis, J.P.A., Clarke, M., Devereaux, P.J., Kleijnen, J., and Moher, D. (2009). The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: Explanation and elaboration. PLoS Med., 6.","DOI":"10.2427\/5768"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sangha, S., Elnady, A.M., and Menon, C. (2016, January 26\u201329). A compact robotic orthosis for wrist assistance. Proceedings of the 2016 6th IEEE International Conference on Biomedical Robotics and Biomechatronics (BioRob), Singapore.","DOI":"10.1109\/BIOROB.2016.7523775"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chonnaparamutt, W., and Supsi, W. (2016). SEFRE: Semiexoskeleton Rehabilitation System. Appl. Bionics Biomech., 2016.","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/8306765"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Sui, D., Fan, J., Jin, H., Cai, X., Zhao, J., and Zhu, Y. (2017, January 3\u20137). Design of a wearable upper-limb exoskeleton for activities assistance of daily living. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Advanced Intelligent Mechatronics (AIM), Munich, Germany."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-10-3737-5_12","article-title":"The control of an upper-limb exoskeleton by means of a particle swarm optimized active force control for motor recovery","volume":"58","author":"Taha","year":"2017","journal-title":"IFMBE Proc."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tageldeen, M.K., Perumal, N., Elamvazuthi, I., and Ganesan, T. (2016, January 25\u201327). Design and control of an upper arm exoskeleton using Fuzzy logic techniques. Proceedings of the 2016 2nd IEEE International Symposium on Robotics and Manufacturing Automation (ROMA), Ipoh, Malaysia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROMA.2016.7847838"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seeland, A., Tabie, M., Kim, S.K., Kirchner, F., and Kirchner, E.A. (2017, January 5\u20138). Adaptive multimodal biosignal control for exoskeleton supported stroke rehabilitation. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (SMC), Banff, AB, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/SMC.2017.8122987"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shamroukh, M., Chacko, A., Kalaichelvi, V., Kalimullah, I.Q., Barlingay, S.S., and Chattopadhyay, A.B. (2017, January 3\u20134). Evaluation of control strategies in semi-active orthosis for suppression of upper limb pathological tremors. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Innovations in Electrical, Electronics, Instrumentation and Media Technology (ICEEIMT), Coimbatore, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIEEIMT.2017.8116809"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lambelet, C., Lyu, M., Woolley, D., Gassert, R., and Wenderoth, N. (2017, January 17\u201320). The eWrist\u2014A wearable wrist exoskeleton with sEMG-based force control for stroke rehabilitation. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics, ICORR 2017, London, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICORR.2017.8009334"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1007\/s41315-018-0064-8","article-title":"Upper limb rehabilitation using robotic exoskeleton systems: A systematic review","volume":"2","author":"Rehmat","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Intell. Robot. Appl."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"797","article-title":"Robust controls for upper limb exoskeleton, real-time results","volume":"232","author":"Salazar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part I J. Syst. Control Eng."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Siu, H.C., Arenas, A.M., Sun, T., and Stirling, L.A. (2018). Implementation of a surface electromyography-based upper extremity exoskeleton controller using learning from demonstration. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18020467"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di Febbo, D., Ambrosini, E., Pirotta, M., Rojas, E., Restelli, M., Pedrocchi, A.L.G., and Ferrante, S. (2018, January 11\u201313). Does Reinforcement Learning outperform PID in the control of FES-induced elbow flex-extension?. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Symposium on Medical Measurements and Applications (MeMeA), Rome, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/MeMeA.2018.8438800"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, S., Fu, Q., Guo, S., and Fu, Y. (2018). Coordinative Motion-based Bilateral Rehabilitation Training System with Exoskeleton and Haptic Devices for Biomedical Application. Micromachines, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi10010008"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1253","DOI":"10.1080\/01691864.2018.1546617","article-title":"Reviewing high-level control techniques on robot-assisted upper-limb rehabilitation","volume":"32","author":"Miao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Robot."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, Z., Li, X., and Hao, L. (2018, January 19\u201323). Research on the Control Method of a Rehabilitation Exoskeleton Robot for Passive Training on Upper-Limbs of Stroke Patients. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE 8th Annual International Conference on CYBER Technology in Automation, Control, and Intelligent Systems (CYBER), Tianjin, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/CYBER.2018.8688171"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Y., and Guo, S. (2018, January 4\u20138). Design of a Novel Wearable Power-assist Exoskeleton Device. Proceedings of the 2018 13th World Congress on Intelligent Control and Automation (WCICA), Changsha, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/WCICA.2018.8630411"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, L., Zhang, C., Liu, Z., and Zhang, T. (December, January 30). Evaluation of Muscle Fatigue Based on CRP and RQA for Upper Limb Exoskeleton. Proceedings of the 2018 Chinese Automation Congress (CAC), Xi\u2019an, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/CAC.2018.8623596"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1080\/01691864.2019.1621774","article-title":"Bionic control of exoskeleton robot based on motion intention for rehabilitation training","volume":"33","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Robot."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, S., Gao, W., and Bu, D. (2020, January 2\u20135). Radial Basis Function Neural Network-based Control Method for a Upper Limb Rehabilitation Robot. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Conference on Mechatronics and Automation (ICMA), Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICMA.2019.8816340"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Asokan, A., and Vigneshwar, M. (2019, January 9\u201311). Design and Control of an EMG-based Low-cost Exoskeleton for Stroke Rehabilitation. Proceedings of the 2019 Fifth Indian Control Conference (ICC) 2019, Delhi, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/INDIANCC.2019.8715555"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al Bakri, A., Lezzar, M.Y., Alzinati, M., Mortazavi, K., Shehieb, W., and Sharif, T. (2018, January 1\u20133). Intelligent Exoskeleton for Patients with Paralysis. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE 9th Annual Information Technology, Electronics and Mobile Communication Conference (IEMCON), Vancouver, BC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEMCON.2018.8614867"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bspc.2018.12.020","article-title":"An upper limb movement estimation from electromyography by using BP neural network","volume":"49","author":"Lei","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biomed. Signal Process. Control"},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"353","article-title":"Overview of Computational Intelligence (CI) Techniques for Powered Exoskeletons","volume":"Volume 776","author":"Zaroug","year":"2019","journal-title":"Computational Intelligence in Sensor Networks"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-78452-6_30","article-title":"The control of an upper extremity exoskeleton for stroke rehabilitation by means of a hybrid active force control","volume":"Volume 751","author":"Taha","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"V\u00e9lez-Guerrero, M.A., and Callejas-Cuervo, M. (2019, January 21\u201323). Data Acquisition and Control Architecture for Intelligent Robotic Exoskeletons in Rehabilitation. Proceedings of the 7th IEEE International Conference on E-Health and Bioengineering\u2014EHB 2019, Iasi, Romania.","DOI":"10.1109\/EHB47216.2019.8970015"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medengphy.2020.01.016","article-title":"Design and verification of a human\u2013robot interaction system for upper limb exoskeleton rehabilitation","volume":"79","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Eng. Phys."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, X., Liu, S., Chang, Y., Li, S., Fan, Y., and Yu, H. (2020). A Human Joint Torque Estimation Method for Elbow Exoskeleton Control. Int. J. Humanoid Robot., 17.","DOI":"10.1142\/S0219843619500397"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149796","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3016726","article-title":"Dynamic Modeling and Motion Control of a Cable-Driven Robotic Exoskeleton with Pneumatic Artificial Muscle Actuators","volume":"8","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153297","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3018418","article-title":"A Cable-Driven Exosuit for Upper Limb Flexion Based on Fibres Compliance","volume":"8","author":"Ferre","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2019.2963636","article-title":"Design and Prototyping of a Bio-Inspired Kinematic Sensing Suit for the Shoulder Joint: Precursor to a Multi-DoF Shoulder Exosuit","volume":"5","author":"Varghese","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Lett."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Kumar, S., Simnofske, M., Bongardt, B., M\u00fcller, A., and Kirchner, F. (July, January 28). Integrating mimic joints into dynamics algorithms: Exemplified by the hybrid recupera exoskeleton. Proceedings of the Advances in Robotics, New Delhi, India."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumar, S., W\u00f6hrle, H., Trampler, M., Simnofske, M., Peters, H., Mallwitz, M., Kirchner, E., and Kirchner, F. (2019). Modular Design and Decentralized Control of the Recupera Exoskeleton for Stroke Rehabilitation. Appl. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/app9040626"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Christensen, S., Bai, S., Rafique, S., Isaksson, M., O\u2019Sullivan, L., Power, V., and Virk, G.S. (2019). AXO-SUIT\u2014A Modular Full-Body Exoskeleton for Physical Assistance, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-00365-4_52"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364917706743","article-title":"An upper-body rehabilitation exoskeleton Harmony with an anatomical shoulder mechanism: Design, modeling, control, and performance evaluation","volume":"36","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Rob. Res."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1007\/s11192-009-0146-3","article-title":"Software survey: VOSviewer, a computer program for bibliometric mapping","volume":"84","author":"Waltman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Scientometrics"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reanaree, P., and Pintavirooj, C. (2018, January 21\u201324). Exoskeleton Suit Supports the Movement. Proceedings of the 2018 11th Biomedical Engineering International Conference (BMEiCON), Chiang Mai, Thailand.","DOI":"10.1109\/BMEiCON.2018.8609990"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2008.915453","article-title":"Lower Extremity Exoskeletons and Active Orthoses: Challenges and State-of-the-Art","volume":"24","author":"Dollar","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"237","article-title":"The control of an upper extremity exoskeleton for stroke rehabilitation: An active force control scheme approach","volume":"2","author":"Taha","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Robot. Res."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Nag, P.K., Mission, R., Sinha, A.G.K., and Goswami, A. (2014). Introduction and Classification of Therapeutic Exercise, Shivaji College, University of Delhi."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gull, M.A., Bai, S., and Bak, T. (2020). A review on design of upper limb exoskeletons. Robotics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/robotics9010016"},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"1","article-title":"The Effect of Arm Support Exoskeletons in Realistic Work Activities: A Review Study","volume":"9","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Ergon."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"1","article-title":"Comparisons between end-effector and exoskeleton rehabilitation robots regarding upper extremity function among chronic stroke patients with moderate-to-severe upper limb impairment","volume":"10","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pang, Z., Wang, T., Wang, Z., Yu, J., Sun, Z., and Liu, S. (2020). Design and analysis of a wearable upper limb rehabilitation robot with characteristics of tension mechanism. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10062101"},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Mallwitz, M., Will, N., Teiwes, J., and Kirchner, E.A. (2015, January 11\u201313). The CAPIO Active Upper Body Exoskeleton and Its Application for Teleoperation. Proceedings of the 13th Symposium on Advanced Space Technologies in Robotics and Automation. ESA\/Estec Symposium on Advanced Space Technologies in Robotics and Automation (ASTRA-2015), Noordwijk, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"McPhee, J. (2019). Integration of Machine Learning with Dynamics and Control: From Autonomous Cars to Biomechatronics. CSME Bull., 151\u2013152."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"23","article-title":"Control strategies and artificial intelligence in rehabilitation robotics","volume":"36","author":"Novak","year":"2015","journal-title":"AI Mag."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"010804","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4039145","article-title":"A Review of Intent Detection, Arbitration, and Communication Aspects of Shared Control for Physical Human\u2013Robot Interaction","volume":"70","author":"Losey","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Mech. Rev."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-0003-2-2","article-title":"Advances in wearable technology and applications in physical medicine and rehabilitation","volume":"2","author":"Bonato","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Nayak, S., and Kumar Das, R. (2016). Application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Prosthetic and Orthotic Rehabilitation. Service Robotics, IntechOpen."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1089\/soro.2019.0040","article-title":"Efficient Multiaxial Shoulder-Motion Tracking Based on Flexible Resistive Sensors Applied to Exosuits","volume":"7","author":"Ferre","year":"2020","journal-title":"Soft Robot."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Belda, K., and B\u00f6hm, J. (2006, January 10\u201312). Adaptive Predictive Control for Simple Mechatronic Systems. Proceedings of the 10th WSEAS International Conference on Systems, Athens, Greece."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Szuster, M., and Hendzel, Z. (2018). Intelligent Optimal Adaptive Control for Mechatronic Systems, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-68826-8"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-0003-6-20","article-title":"Review of control strategies for robotic movement training after neurologic injury","volume":"6","author":"Reinkensmeyer","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1354","DOI":"10.1177\/0020294019866844","article-title":"Assist-as-needed control strategy for upper-limb rehabilitation based on subject\u2019s functional ability","volume":"52","author":"Mounis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Meas. Control (UK)"},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Benveniste, A., Wilson, S.S., Metivier, M., and Priouret, P. (2012). Adaptive Algorithms and Stochastic Approximations, Springer. Stochastic Modelling and Applied Probability."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gambhire, S.J., Kishore, D.R., Londhe, P.S., and Pawar, S.N. (2020). Review of sliding mode based control techniques for control system applications. Int. J. Dyn. Control.","DOI":"10.1007\/s40435-020-00638-7"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Babaiasl, M., Goldar, S.N., Barhaghtalab, M.H., and Meigoli, V. (2015, January 7\u20139). Sliding mode control of an exoskeleton robot for use in upper-limb rehabilitation. Proceedings of the 2015 3rd RSI International Conference on Robotics and Mechatronics (ICROM), Tehran, Iran.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRoM.2015.7367867"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"988","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2012.07.273","article-title":"Active exoskeleton control systems: State of the art","volume":"41","author":"Anam","year":"2012","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Esmaeili, B., Beyramzad, J., Seyyedrasuli, M., Noorani, M.R.S., and Ghanbari, A. (2018, January 5\u20138). Using fuzzy neural network sliding mode control for human-exoskeleton interaction forces minimization. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Conference on Mechatronics and Automation (ICMA), Changchun, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICMA.2018.8484461"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2581","DOI":"10.3233\/JIFS-181558","article-title":"An upper-limb exoskeleton robot control using a novel fast fuzzy sliding mode control","volume":"36","author":"Rahmani","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Intell. Fuzzy Syst."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1002\/int.4550080403","article-title":"Adaptive neural networks and their applications","volume":"8","author":"Widrow","year":"1993","journal-title":"Int. J. Intell. Syst."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1929","DOI":"10.1142\/S0218127406015805","article-title":"Adaptive algorithms for neural network supervised learning: A deterministic optimization approach","volume":"16","author":"Magoulas","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Bifurc. Chaos"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asoc.2013.10.014","article-title":"Applications of neuro fuzzy systems: A brief review and future outline","volume":"15","author":"Kar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Soft Comput. J."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5255","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-6670(17)56894-9","article-title":"General Fuzzy Neural Network: Basic structure, algorithms and its applications","volume":"32","author":"Xu","year":"1999","journal-title":"IFAC Proc. Vol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1109\/TFUZZ.2004.832525","article-title":"Neuro-fuzzy control of a robotic exoskeleton with EMG signals","volume":"12","author":"Kiguchi","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Fuzzy Syst."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meyers, R.A. (2009). Neuro-fuzzy Control of Autonomous Robotics. Encyclopedia of Complexity and Systems Science, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-30440-3"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, Y., Yang, C., and Ma, H. (2016). A Review of Fuzzy Logic and Neural Network Based Intelligent Control Design for Discrete-Time Systems. Discret. Dyn. Nat. Soc., 2016.","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/7217364"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106706","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2020.106706","article-title":"An optimal fuzzy-theoretic setting of adaptive robust control design for a lower limb exoskeleton robot system","volume":"141","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ou, Y., Li, Z., Li, G., and Su, C.Y. (2012, January 11\u201314). Adaptive fuzzy tracking control of a human lower limb with an exoskeleton. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Biomimetics (ROBIO), Guangzhou, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBIO.2012.6491251"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s12555-018-0410-5","article-title":"A 7-DoF Upper Limb Exoskeleton Robot Control Using a New Robust Hybrid Controller","volume":"17","author":"Rahmani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Control. Autom. Syst."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-89911-4_8","article-title":"Robustness Analysis of an Upper Limb Exoskeleton Controlled by Sliding Mode Algorithm","volume":"58","author":"Bembli","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mech. Mach. Sci."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anirudh Sharma, C., Sai, A.S.K., Kumar, V., Prasad, A., Begum, R., Sharvani, G.S., and Manjunath, A.E. (2018, January 19\u201320). Multifaceted Bio-medical applications of Exoskeleton: A review. Proceedings of the 2018 2nd International Conference on Inventive Systems and Control (ICISC), Coimbatore, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICISC.2018.8399053"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1142\/S0219843607001175","article-title":"Active exoskeletons for upper-limb motion assist","volume":"4","author":"Kiguchi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum. Robot."},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"Ruiz, A.F., Forner-Cordero, A., Rocon, E., and Pons, J.L. (2006, January 20\u201322). Exoskeletons for rehabilitation and motor control. Proceedings of the First IEEE\/RAS-EMBS International Conference on Biomedical Robotics and Biomechatronics, Pisa, Italy."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1109\/RBME.2016.2552201","article-title":"Upper-limb robotic exoskeletons for neurorehabilitation: A review on control strategies","volume":"9","author":"Proietti","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Rev. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2018.00577","article-title":"Mobile mechatronic\/robotic orthotic devices to assist-rehabilitate neuromotor impairments in the upper limb: A systematic and synthetic review","volume":"12","author":"Onose","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iandolo, R., Marini, F., Semprini, M., Laffranchi, M., Mugnosso, M., Cherif, A., De Michieli, L., Chiappalone, M., and Zenzeri, J. (2019). Perspectives and challenges in robotic neurorehabilitation. Appl. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/app9153183"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-020-10030-x","article-title":"\u201cAI\u2019s gonna have an impact on everything in society, so it has to have an impact on public health\u201d: A fundamental qualitative descriptive study of the implications of artificial intelligence for public health","volume":"21","author":"Morgenstern","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102009","DOI":"10.1016\/j.artmed.2021.102009","article-title":"Medical analytics for healthcare intelligence\u2014Recent advances and future directions","volume":"112","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Artif. Intell. Med."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sherratt, F., and Plummer, A. (2021). Understanding LSTM Network Behaviour of IMU-Based. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21041264"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1089\/g4h.2020.0024","article-title":"Evaluation of Patient Motivation and Satisfaction during Technology-Assisted Rehabilitation: An Experiential Review","volume":"10","author":"Monardo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Games Health J."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alarc\u00f3n-Aldana, A.C., Callejas-Cuervo, M., and Bo, A.P.L. (2020). Upper limb physical rehabilitation using serious videogames and motion capture systems: A systematic review. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20215989"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De la Tejera, J.A., Bustamante-Bello, R., Ramirez-Mendoza, R.A., and Izquierdo-Reyes, J. (2021). Systematic review of exoskeletons towards a general categorization model proposal. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11010076"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/6\/2146\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:37:53Z","timestamp":1760161073000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/6\/2146"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,18]]},"references-count":104,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3]]}},"alternative-id":["s21062146"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21062146","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,18]]}}}