{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T01:55:19Z","timestamp":1760234119986,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,25]],"date-time":"2021-03-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1616630400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Defence Research and Development Canada, Ottawa Research Centre, Radar Electronic Warfare Section","award":["Capability Development"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Capability Development"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this paper, a novel signal processing algorithm for mitigating the radar blind speed problem of moving target indication (MTI) for frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW) multi-target tracking radars is proposed. A two-phase staggered pulse repetition interval (PRI) solution is introduced to the FMCW radar system. It is implemented as a time-varying MTI filter using twice the hardware resources as compared to a uniform PRI MTI filter. The two-phase staggered PRI FMCW waveform is still periodic with a little more than twice the period of the uniform PRI radar. We also propose a slow time signal integration scheme for the radar detector using the post-fast Fourier transformation Doppler tracking loop. This scheme introduces 4.77 dB of extra signal processing gain to the signal before the radar detector compared with the original uniform PRI FMCW radar. The validation of the algorithm is done on the field programmable logic array in the loop test bed, which accurately models and emulates the target movement, line of sight propagation and radar signal processing. A simulation run of tracking 16 s of the target movement near or at the radar blind speed shows that the total degradation from the raw post-fast Fourier transformation received signal to noise ratio is about 2 dB. With a 20 dB post-processing signal to noise ratio of the proposed algorithm for the moving target at around a 20 km range and with about a \u22123.5 dB m2 radar cross section at a 1.5 GHz carrier frequency, the tracking errors of the two-dimensional angles with a 4\u00d74 digital phased array are less than 0.2 degree. The range tracking error is about 28 m.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21072296","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,25]],"date-time":"2021-03-25T21:09:45Z","timestamp":1616706585000},"page":"2296","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["A Signal Processing Algorithm of Two-Phase Staggered PRI and Slow Time Signal Integration for MTI Triangular FMCW Multi-Target Tracking Radars"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3983-5286","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Taiwen","family":"Tang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Defence Research and Development Canada, Ottawa Research Centre, Ottawa, ON K1A 0Z4, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7095-131X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chen","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Defence Research and Development Canada, Ottawa Research Centre, Ottawa, ON K1A 0Z4, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5561-5529","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Janaka","family":"Elangage","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Defence Research and Development Canada, Ottawa Research Centre, Ottawa, ON K1A 0Z4, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Melvin, W.L., and Scheer, J.A. (2014). Principles of Modern Radar: Radar Applications, Scitech Publishing."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brookner, E. (2008, January 26\u201330). Phased-array and radar astounding breakthroughs\u2014An update. Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE Radar Conference, Rome, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/RADAR.2008.4720771"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kinghorn, T., Scott, I., and Totten, E. (2016, January 26). Recent advances in airborne phased array radar systems. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE International Symposium on Phased Array Systems and Technology (PAST), Waltham, MA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ARRAY.2016.7832541"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1049\/ip-f-2.1992.0048","article-title":"Linear FMCW Radar Techniques","volume":"Volume 139","author":"Stove","year":"1992","journal-title":"IEE Proceedings F (Radar and Signal Processing)"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Filippo, N. (2011). Introduction to Electronic Defense Systems, Artech House. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rohling, H., and Moller, C. (2008, January 26\u201328). Radar Waveform for Automotive Radar Systems and Applications. Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE Radar Conference, Rome, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/RADAR.2008.4721121"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2016.2640518","article-title":"Radar Sensor Signal Acquisition and Multidimensional FFT Processing for Surveillance Applications in Transport Systems","volume":"66","author":"Saponara","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choi, J., Park, J., and Yeom, D. (2011, January 24\u201327). High Angular Resolution Estimation Methods for Vehicle FMCW Radar. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE CIE International Conference on Radar, Chengdu, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/CIE-Radar.2011.6159937"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Su, L., Wu, H.S., and Tzuang, C.K.C. (2011, January 5\u20138). 2D FFT and Time-Frequency Analysis Techniques for Multi-Target Recognition of FMCW radar Signal. Proceedings of the Asia-Pacific Microwave Conference 2011, Melbourne, Australia."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2014.2321175","article-title":"System Analysis of a Phased-Array Radar Applying Adaptive Beam-Control for Future Automotive Safety Applications","volume":"64","author":"Dudek","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1710","DOI":"10.1109\/LAWP.2015.2420579","article-title":"Joint DFT-ESPRIT Estimation for TOA and DOA in Vehicle FMCW Radars","volume":"14","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1186\/s40064-015-1583-5","article-title":"Design of an FMCW radar baseband signal processing system for automotive application","volume":"5","author":"Lin","year":"2016","journal-title":"SpringerPlus"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3148237","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/3148237","article-title":"Design and Implementation of 24 GHz Multichannel FMCW Surveillance Radar with a Software-Reconfigurable Baseband","volume":"2017","author":"Hyun","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"60","article-title":"Design and Implementation of FMCW Surveillance Radar Based on Dual Chirps","volume":"24","author":"Jin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Elektron. Elektrotechnika"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hyun, E., Jin, Y.-S., Ju, Y., and Lee, J.-H. (2015, January 1\u20134). Development of Short-Range Ground Surveillance Radar for Moving Target Detection. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE 5th Asia-Pacific Conference on Synthetic Aperture Radar (APSAR \u201815), Singapore.","DOI":"10.1109\/APSAR.2015.7306300"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, B., Jin, Y.-S., Kim, S., and Lee, J. (2019). A Low-Complexity FMCW Surveillance Radar Algorithm Using Two Random Beat Signals. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19030608"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Lischi, S., Massini, R., Musetti, L., Staglian\u00f2, D., Berizzi, F., Neri, B., and Saponara, S. (2015). Low Cost FMCW Radar Design and Implementation for Harbour Surveillance Applications. Applications in Electronics Pervading Industry, Environment and Society, Springer."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1594","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2011.5937252","article-title":"Determination of Sweep Linearity Requirements in FMCW Radar Systems Based on Simple Voltage-Controlled Oscillator Sources","volume":"47","author":"Brennan","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jeffery, T.W. (2009). Phased-Array Radar Design: Application of Radar Fundamentals, Scitech Publishing.","DOI":"10.1049\/SBRA018E"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choi, B., Oh, D., Kim, S., Chong, J.-W., and Li, Y.-C. (2018). Long-Range Drone Detection of 24 G FMCW Radar with E-plane Sectoral Horn Array. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18124171"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Stone, L.D., Barlow, C.A., and Corwin, T.L. (1999). Bayesian Multiple Target Tracking, Artech House."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hyun, E., and Lee, J.-H. (2016, January 10\u201312). Multi-Target Tracking Scheme Using a Track Management Table for Automotive Radar Systems. Proceedings of the 2016 17th International Radar Symposium (IRS), Krakow, Poland.","DOI":"10.1109\/IRS.2016.7497283"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, D.-B., and Hong, S.-M. (2013). Multiple-target tracking and track management for an FMCW radar network. EURASIP J. Adv. Signal Process., 159.","DOI":"10.1186\/1687-6180-2013-159"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Skolnik, M. (1990). Radar Handbook, McGraw-Hill. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Skolnik, M. (2001). Introduction to Radar Systems, McGraw-Hill. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Tang, T., and Wu, C. (2019). Design of New FMCW Target Tracking Radar with Digital Beamforming Tracking, DRDC Scientific Report; DRDC-RDDC-2019-R175."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tang, T., Wu, C., and Elangage, J. (2021). Analyze the FMCW Waveform Skin Return of Moving Objects in the Presence of Stationary Hidden Objects Using Numerical Models. Electronics, 10.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202011.0669.v1"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Miller, R. (2005). Fundamentals of Radar Signal Processing, McGraw-Hill."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"141","article-title":"Adaptive Detection Mode with Threshold Control as a Function of Spatially Sampled Clutter-level","volume":"29","author":"Finn","year":"1968","journal-title":"Estim. RCA Rev."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Rhodes, D.R. (1959). Introduction to Monopulse, McGraw-Hill."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Shernman, S.M., and Barton, D.K. (2011). Monopulse Principles and Techniques, Artech House. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4167","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2018.2823588","article-title":"On the Application of Digital Moving Target Indication Techniques to Short-Range FMCW Radar Data","volume":"18","author":"Ash","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Salous, S., Musal, M., and Moorhead, M. (April, January 31). A staggered waveform HF frequency modulated radar simulation. Proceedings of the IEEE National Conference on Antennas and Propagation, York, UK."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1147","DOI":"10.1109\/PROC.1973.9223","article-title":"A class of high-pass digital MTI filters with nonuniform PRF","volume":"61","author":"Prinsen","year":"1973","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1049\/ip-f-2.1993.0018","article-title":"Analysis of the digital MTI filter with random PRI","volume":"Volume 140","year":"1993","journal-title":"IEE Proceedings F (Radar and Signal Processing)"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-rsn.2015.0175","article-title":"On the Design of Staggered Moving Target Indicator Filters","volume":"10","author":"Ispir","year":"2016","journal-title":"IET Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Doerry, A.W. (2018, January 4). Radar Doppler Processing with Nonuniform PRF. Proceedings of the SPIE 10633, Radar Sensor Technology XXII, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2303453"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3747","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2019.2901493","article-title":"Automotive Radar Interference Mitigation Using Adaptive Noise Canceller","volume":"68","author":"Jin","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2609873","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/2609873","article-title":"A General Range-Velocity Processing Scheme for Discontinuous Spectrum FMCW Signal in HFSWR Applications","volume":"2016","author":"Pan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Hinz, O., Fickenscher, T., Gupta, A., Holters, M., and Z\u00f6lzer, U. (2011, January 7\u20139). Evaluation of time-staggered MIMO FMCW in HFSWR. Proceedings of the 12th International Radar Symposium (IRS), Leipzig, Germany."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shen, S., Nie, X., Tang, L., Bai, Y., Zhang, X., Li, L., and Ben, D. (2020). An Improved Coherent Integration Method for Wideband Radar Based on Two-Dimensional Frequency Correction. Electronics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics9050840"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2020). FIR Halfband Filter Design, Mathworks Inc.. Available online: https:\/\/www.mathworks.com\/help\/dsp\/ug\/fir-halfband-filter-design.htmlhttps:\/\/www.mathworks.com\/help\/hdlverifier\/ug\/fpga-in-the-loop-fil-simulation.html."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"(2020). FPGA-in-the-Loop Simulation, Mathworks Inc.. Available online: https:\/\/www.mathworks.com\/help\/hdlverifier\/ug\/fpga-in-the-loop-fil-simulation.html."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shaghaghi, M., Adve, R.S., and Ding, Z. (2019, January 3\u20136). Resource Management for Multifunction Multichannel Cognitive Radars. Proceedings of the 2019 53rd Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems, and Computers, Pacific Grove, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEEECONF44664.2019.9049014"},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Ding, Z., and Moo, P. (2016). Non-Adaptive and Adaptive Beam Scheduling Techniques for Phased Array Radar, DRDC Scientific Report; DRDC-RDDC-2016-R214."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/7\/2296\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:40:52Z","timestamp":1760161252000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/7\/2296"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,25]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4]]}},"alternative-id":["s21072296"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21072296","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,25]]}}}