{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]],"date-time":"2026-03-24T06:49:05Z","timestamp":1774334945668,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,30]],"date-time":"2021-03-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1617062400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ground moving target imaging finds its main applications in both military and homeland security applications, with examples in operations of intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) as well as border surveillance. When such an operation is performed from the air looking down towards the ground, the clutter return may be comparable or even stronger than the target\u2019s, making the latter hard to be detected and imaged. In order to solve this problem, multichannel radar systems are used that are able to remove the ground clutter and effectively detect and image moving targets. In this feature paper, the latest findings in the area of Ground Moving Target Imaging are revisited that see the joint application of Space-Time Adaptive Processing and Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar Imaging. The theoretical aspects analysed in this paper are supported by practical evidence and followed by application-oriented discussions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21072391","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,31]],"date-time":"2021-03-31T00:13:10Z","timestamp":1617149590000},"page":"2391","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Ground Moving Target Imaging via SDAP-ISAR Processing: Review and New Trends"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Marco","family":"Martorella","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering, University of Pisa, 56122 Pisa, Italy"},{"name":"Radar and Surveillance Systems National Laboratoy, CNIT, 56122 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5107-0904","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samuele","family":"Gelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Radar and Surveillance Systems National Laboratoy, CNIT, 56122 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Alessio","family":"Bacci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Leonardo S.p.A., 50013 Firenze, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Carrara, W., Goodman, R., and Majewski, R. (1995). Spotlight Synthetic Aperture Radar: Signal Processing Algorithms, Artech House Signal Processing Library, Artech House."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-rsn.2011.0310","article-title":"ISAR based techniques for refocusing non-cooperative targets in SAR images","volume":"6","author":"Martorella","year":"2012","journal-title":"IET Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lazarov, A.D., and Minchev, C.N. (2007, January 14\u201316). SAR Imaging of a Moving Target. Proceedings of the 2007 3rd International Conference on Recent Advances in Space Technologies, Istanbul, Turkey.","DOI":"10.1109\/RAST.2007.4284014"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-1684(94)90204-6","article-title":"Detection of moving objects with airborne {SAR}","volume":"36","author":"Bisceglie","year":"1994","journal-title":"Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.1971.310292","article-title":"Synthetic Aperture Imaging Radar and Moving Targets","volume":"AES-7","author":"Raney","year":"1971","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1080\/01431169108929656","article-title":"Change detection in SAR imagery","volume":"12","author":"White","year":"1991","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rapp, J., Saunders, C., Tachella, J., Murray-Bruce, J., Altmann, Y., Tourneret, J.Y., McLaughlin, S., Dawson, R., Wong, F., and Goyal, V. (2020). Seeing around corners with edge-resolved transient imaging. Nat. Commun., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-19727-4"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0868-6","article-title":"Computational periscopy with an ordinary digital camera","volume":"565","author":"Saunders","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1109\/7.104273","article-title":"Development of airborne moving target radar for long range surveillance","volume":"27","author":"Dickey","year":"1991","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Skolnik, M. (2008). Radar Handbook, The McGraw-Hill Companies. [3rd ed.]. Available online: https:\/\/www.accessengineeringlibrary.com\/content\/book\/9780071485470."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Pascazio, V., Schirinzi, G., and Farina, A. (2001, January 9\u201313). Moving target detection by along-track interferometry. Proceedings of the IGARSS 2001, Scanning the Present and Resolving the Future, IEEE 2001 International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Sydney, Australia."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Gierull, C. (2002). Moving Target Detection by Along-Track SAR Interferometry, DREO Technical Report."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1109\/MAES.2008.4558004","article-title":"Along-track interferometry for ground moving target indication","volume":"23","author":"Chapin","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Aerosp. Electron. Syst. Mag."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1109\/5.30749","article-title":"Time-frequency distributions\u2014A review","volume":"77","author":"Cohen","year":"1989","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1109\/7.272259","article-title":"Space-time-frequency processing of synthetic aperture radar signals","volume":"30","author":"Barbarossa","year":"1994","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Lombardo, P. (1997, January 13\u201315). Estimation of target motion parameters from dual-channel SAR echoes via time-frequency analysis. Proceedings of the 1997 IEEE National Radar Conference, Syracuse, NY, USA."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Klemm, R. (2006). Institution of Engineering and Technology. Principles of Space-Time Adaptive Processing, Institution of Engineering and Technology. [3rd ed.]. Available online: https:\/\/cds.cern.ch\/record\/1621479.","DOI":"10.1049\/PBRA021E"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Guerci, J. (2003). Space-Time Adaptive Processing for Radar, Artech House Radar Library, Artech House. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Ward, J. (1994). Space-Time Adaptive Processing for Airborne Radar, Massachusset Inst of Tech Lexinton Lincoln Lab."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ender, J. (1998, January 6). Space-time adaptive processing for synthetic aperture radar. Proceedings of the IEE Colloquium on Space-Time Adaptive Processing, London, UK.","DOI":"10.1049\/ic:19980244"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1049\/ecej:19990106","article-title":"Space-time processing for multichannel synthetic aperture radar","volume":"11","author":"Ender","year":"1999","journal-title":"Electron. Commun. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosenberg, L., Trinkle, M., and Gray, D. (2006, January 24\u201326). Fast-time STAP Performance in pre and post Range Processing Adaption as applied to Multichannel SAR. Proceedings of the 2006 International Radar Symposium (IRS), Krakow, Poland.","DOI":"10.1109\/IRS.2006.4338136"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Rosenberg, L., and Gray, D. (2005, January 28\u201331). Robust interference suppression for multichannel SAR. Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium on Signal Processing and Its Applications, Sydney, NSW, Australia."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1049\/ip-rsn:20045090","article-title":"Anti-jamming techniques for multichannel SAR imaging","volume":"153","author":"Rosenberg","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEE Proc. Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1850","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2018.2805141","article-title":"Knowledge-Aided Bayesian Space-Time Adaptive Processing","volume":"54","author":"Riedl","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"944","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2015.2470518","article-title":"Space-Time Adaptive Processing and Motion Parameter Estimation in Multistatic Passive Radar Using Sparse Bayesian Learning","volume":"54","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2017.2650639","article-title":"Multi-Waveform Space-Time Adaptive Processing","volume":"53","author":"Blunt","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Song, C., Wang, B., Xiang, M., Wang, Z., Xu, W., and Sun, X. (2020). A Novel Post-Doppler Parametric Adaptive Matched Filter for Airborne Multichannel Radar. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12244017"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shen, S., Tang, L., Nie, X., Bai, Y., Zhang, X., and Li, P. (2020). Robust Space Time Adaptive Processing Methods for Synthetic Aperture Radar. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10103609"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, M.B., Hussain, A., Anjum, U., Babar Ali, C., and Yang, X. (2020). Adaptive Doppler Compensation for Mitigating Range Dependence in Forward-Looking Airborne Radar. Electronics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics9111896"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bacci, A., Gray, D., Martorella, M., and Berizzi, F. (May, January 29). Joint STAP-ISAR for non-cooperative target imaging in strong clutter. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE Radar Conference (RadarCon13), Ottawa, ON, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/RADAR.2013.6585976"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Bacci, A. (2014). Optimal Space Time Adaptive Processing for Multichannel Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar Imaging. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Adelaide]."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-rsn.2014.0172","article-title":"Space-Doppler adaptive processing for radar imaging of moving targets masked by ground clutter","volume":"9","author":"Bacci","year":"2015","journal-title":"IET Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Battisti, N., and Martorella, M. (2010, January 10\u201314). Intereferometric phase and target motion estimation for accurate 3D reflectivity reconstruction in ISAR systems. Proceedings of the 2010 IEEE Radar Conference, Arlington, VA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/RADAR.2010.5494644"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Berizzi, F., Martorella, M., and Giusti, E. (2016). Radar Imaging for Maritime Obseravtion, CRC Press."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1125","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2007.4383602","article-title":"On Bistatic Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar","volume":"43","author":"Martorella","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3102","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2014.130210","article-title":"3D interferometric ISAR imaging of noncooperative targets","volume":"50","author":"Martorella","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, V., and Martorella, M. (2014). Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar Imaging: Principles, Algorithms and Applications, Institution of Engineering and Technology.","DOI":"10.1049\/SBRA504E"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1109\/7.745691","article-title":"SAR imaging of moving targets","volume":"35","author":"Perry","year":"1999","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2010.2053848","article-title":"Ground Moving Targets Imaging Algorithm for Synthetic Aperture Radar","volume":"49","author":"Zhu","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-rsn:20060040","article-title":"Approach for single channel SAR ground moving target imaging and motion parameter estimation","volume":"1","author":"Zhou","year":"2007","journal-title":"IET Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Werness, S., Stuff, M., and Fienup, J. (November, January 5). Two-dimensional imaging of moving targets in SAR data. Proceedings of the 1990 Conference Record Twenty-Fourth Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems and Computers, Pacific Grove, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"932","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2017.2768918","article-title":"Clutter Suppression and High-Resolution Imaging of Noncooperative Ground Targets for Bistatic Airborne Radar","volume":"54","author":"Gelli","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Soumekh, M. (1999). Synthetic Aperture Radar Signal Processing with MATLAB Algorithms, Wiley-Interscience Publication, Wiley."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Rosenberg, L. (2007). Multichannel Synthetic Aperture Radar. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Adelaide]."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1049\/ip-rsn:20045123","article-title":"Contrast maximisation based technique for 2-D ISAR autofocusing","volume":"152","author":"Martorella","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEE Proc. Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"992","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2005.1541444","article-title":"Time windowing for highly focused ISAR image reconstruction","volume":"41","author":"Martorella","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2008.4517004","article-title":"Novel approach for ISAR image cross-range scaling","volume":"44","author":"Martorella","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.1974.307893","article-title":"Rapid Convergence Rate in Adaptive Arrays","volume":"AES-10","author":"Reed","year":"1974","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bacci, A., Gray, D., Martorella, M., and Berizzi, F. (2013, January 9\u201312). Space-Doppler processing for multichannel ISAR imaging of non-cooperative targets embedded in strong clutter. Proceedings of the 2013 International Conference on Radar (Radar), Adelaide, SA, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/RADAR.2013.6651957"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1109\/MSP.2006.1593335","article-title":"Cognitive radar: A way of the future","volume":"23","author":"Haykin","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Signal Process. Mag."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1109\/MSP.2006.1593336","article-title":"Knowledge-aided adaptive radar at DARPA: An overview","volume":"23","author":"Guerci","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Signal Process. Mag."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Cumming, I., and Wong, F. (2005). Digital Processing of Synthetic Aperture Radar Data: Algorithms and Implementation, Number v. 1 in Artech House Remote Sensing Library; Artech House."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2282","DOI":"10.1109\/36.789624","article-title":"A wavelet-based texture feature set applied to classification of multifrequency polarimetric SAR images","volume":"37","author":"Fukuda","year":"1999","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Melvin, W.L., and Wicks, M.C. (1997, January 13\u201315). Improving practical space-time adaptive radar. Proceedings of the 1997 IEEE National Radar Conference, Syracuse, NY, USA."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2006.248194","article-title":"Improved clutter mitigation performance using knowledge-aided space-time adaptive processing","volume":"42","author":"Bergin","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/7\/2391\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T13:33:08Z","timestamp":1760362388000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/7\/2391"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,30]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4]]}},"alternative-id":["s21072391"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21072391","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,30]]}}}