{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,26]],"date-time":"2026-02-26T15:50:29Z","timestamp":1772121029718,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":110,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,6]],"date-time":"2021-04-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1617667200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001659","name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["315440263"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["315440263"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001659","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Diagnostic devices for point-of-care (POC) urine analysis (urinalysis) based on microfluidic technology have been actively developing for several decades as an alternative to laboratory based biochemical assays. Urine proteins (albumin, immunoglobulins, uromodulin, haemoglobin etc.) are important biomarkers of various pathological conditions and should be selectively detected by urinalysis sensors. The challenge is a determination of different oligomeric forms of the same protein, e.g., uromodulin, which have similar bio-chemical affinity but different physical properties. For the selective detection of different types of proteins, we propose to use a shear bulk acoustic resonator sensor with an additional electrode on the upper part of the bioliquid-filled channel for protein electric field manipulation. It causes modulation of the protein concentration over time in the near-surface region of the acoustic sensor, that allows to distinguish proteins based on their differences in diffusion coefficients (or sizes) and zeta-potentials. Moreover, in order to improve the sensitivity to density, we propose to use structured sensor interface. A numerical study of this approach for the detection of proteins was carried out using the example of albumin, immunoglobulin, and oligomeric forms of uromodulin in model urine solutions. In this contribution we prove the proposed concept with numerical studies for the detection of albumin, immunoglobulin, and oligomeric forms of uromodulin in urine models.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21072555","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,6]],"date-time":"2021-04-06T06:05:43Z","timestamp":1617689143000},"page":"2555","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Label-Free Protein Detection by Micro-Acoustic Biosensor Coupled with Electrical Field Sorting. Theoretical Study in Urine Models"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8709-6361","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nikolay","family":"Mukhin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Micro and Sensor Systems, Otto-von-Guericke-University Magdeburg, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Engineering, University of Applied Sciences Brandenburg, 14770 Brandenburg an der Havel, Germany"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1148-7972","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Georgii","family":"Konoplev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Photonics, Saint Petersburg Electrotechnical University \u201cLETI\u201d, 197376 Saint Petersburg, Russia"}]},{"given":"Aleksandr","family":"Oseev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"FEMTO-ST Institute, CNRS UMR-6174, University Bourgogne Franche-Comt\u00e9, 25000 Besan\u00e7on, France"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9268-378X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marc-Peter","family":"Schmidt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering, University of Applied Sciences Brandenburg, 14770 Brandenburg an der Havel, Germany"}]},{"given":"Oksana","family":"Stepanova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Photonics, Saint Petersburg Electrotechnical University \u201cLETI\u201d, 197376 Saint Petersburg, Russia"}]},{"given":"Andrey","family":"Kozyrev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Electronics and Technology, Saint Petersburg Electrotechnical University \u201cLETI\u201d, 197376 Saint Petersburg, Russia"}]},{"given":"Alexander","family":"Dmitriev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ecological Physiology, Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution \u201cInstitute of Experimental Medicine\u201d (FSBSI \u201cIEM\u201d), 197376 Saint Petersburg, Russia"}]},{"given":"Soeren","family":"Hirsch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering, University of Applied Sciences Brandenburg, 14770 Brandenburg an der Havel, Germany"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1080\/14737159.2020.1699063","article-title":"Current and emerging trends in point-of-care urinalysis tests","volume":"20","author":"Lei","year":"2020","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1007\/s10544-020-00484-6","article-title":"Detection of renal biomarkers in chronic kidney disease using microfluidics: Progress, challenges and opportunities","volume":"22","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomed. Microdevices"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Boron, W.F., and Boulpaep, E.L. (2017). Medical Physiology, Elsevier. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782798","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/782798","article-title":"Human urine proteomics: Analytical techniques and clinical applications in renal diseases","volume":"2015","author":"Kalantari","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Proteom."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2734","DOI":"10.1021\/pr2003038","article-title":"A comprehensive map of the human urinary proteome","volume":"10","author":"Marimuthu","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Proteome Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1080\/14789450.2016.1190651","article-title":"Current state of the art for enhancing urine biomarker discovery","volume":"13","author":"Harpole","year":"2016","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Proteom."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1177\/0004563215583698","article-title":"Highly sensitive reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography assay for the detection of Tamm\u2013Horsfall protein in human urine","volume":"53","author":"Akimoto","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"335","article-title":"The pathochemical characteristics of oligomeric forms of Tamm\u2013Horsfall protein under urolithiasis","volume":"61","author":"Landa","year":"2016","journal-title":"Klin. Lab. Diagn. (Russ. Clin. Lab. Diagn.)"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Al\u2019-Shukri, S.K., Goloshchapov, E.T., Gorbachev, M.I., Landa, S.B., Ehmanuehl\u2019, V.L., and Ehmanuehl\u2019, J.V. (2012). Diagnostic Technique for Urolithiasis. (2,504,786), RU Patent."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3482223","article-title":"Using DLS for Fast Urine Sample Analysis","volume":"1262","author":"Chicea","year":"2010","journal-title":"AIP Conf. Proc."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/s12953-016-0093-x","article-title":"Label-free proteomic methodology for the analysis of human kidney stone matrix composition","volume":"14","author":"Witzmann","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proteome Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00934126","article-title":"Urinary protein electrophoresis profile in normal and hypertensive pregnancies","volume":"246","author":"Nesselhut","year":"1989","journal-title":"Arch. Gynecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.7150\/ijbs.4.215","article-title":"Qualification and application of an ELISA for the determination of Tamm\u2013Horsfall Protein (THP) in human urine and its use for screening of Kidney Stone Disease","volume":"4","author":"Lau","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3024","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-03226-6","article-title":"A comprehensive analysis and annotation of human normal urinary proteome","volume":"7","author":"Zhao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Yu, A.S.L., Chertow, G.M., Luyckx, V.A., Marsden, P.A., Skorecki, K., and Taal, M.W. (2020). Brenner & Rector\u2019s the Kidney, Elsevier. [11th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121718","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2020.121718","article-title":"Review: Detection and quantification of proteins in human urine","volume":"223","author":"Aitekenov","year":"2021","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfk014","article-title":"Measurement of microalbuminuria\u2014What the nephrologist should know","volume":"21","author":"Redon","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiochem.2004.12.010","article-title":"Problems with the estimation of urine protein by automated assays","volume":"38","author":"Dube","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2019.06.051","article-title":"Novel field amplification for sensitive colorimetric detection of microalbuminuria on a paper-based analytical device","volume":"1080","author":"Cai","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.1007\/s10404-010-0734-9","article-title":"An integrated microfluidic system for the determination of microalbuminuria by measuring the albumin-to-creatinine ratio","volume":"10","author":"Lin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Microfluid Nanofluid"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2191","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.8b01072","article-title":"A passive mixing microfluidic urinary albumin chip for chronic kidney disease assessment","volume":"3","author":"Wu","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2141","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2006.072801","article-title":"Chip electrophoresis as a method for quantifying total microalbuminuria","volume":"52","author":"Chan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112047","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2020.112047","article-title":"Guided mode resonance sensor for the parallel detection of multiple protein biomarkers in human urine with high sensitivity","volume":"153","author":"Kenaan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2011","DOI":"10.1021\/pr060586+","article-title":"Urinary proteome profiling using microfluidic technology on a chip","volume":"6","author":"Thongboonkerd","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Proteome Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e10","DOI":"10.15171\/ipp.2017.02","article-title":"Can we use serum and urine immunoglobulin levels as biomarkers in patients with glomerulonephritis?","volume":"3","author":"Anis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Immunopathol. Persa"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.29.01.06.dc05-1063","article-title":"Increased urinary excretions of immunoglobulin g, ceruloplasmin, and transferrin predict development of microalbuminuria in patients with type 2 diabetes","volume":"29","author":"Narita","year":"2006","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F157","DOI":"10.1152\/ajprenal.00443.2011","article-title":"Elevated urinary excretion of immunoglobulins in nonproteinuric patients with type 1 diabetes","volume":"303","author":"Gohda","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Renal Physiol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneph.2017.101","article-title":"Uromodulin: From physiology to rare and complex kidney disorders","volume":"13","author":"Devuyst","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1395","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.1990.128","article-title":"Tamm\u2013Horsfall protein\u2014Uromodulin (1950\u20131990)","volume":"37","author":"Kumar","year":"1990","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfy394","article-title":"Uromodulin (Tamm\u2013Horsfall protein): Guardian of urinary and systemic homeostasis","volume":"35","author":"Micanovic","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2011.134","article-title":"The rediscovery of uromodulin (Tamm\u2013Horsfall protein): From tubulointerstitial nephropathy to chronic kidney disease","volume":"80","author":"Rampoldi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1159\/000496844","article-title":"Urinary uromodulin\/creatinine ratio as a potential clinical biomarker for chronic kidney disease patients with gout: A pilot study","volume":"28","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Med. Princ. Pract."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e15808","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000015808","article-title":"Urinary uromodulin independently predicts end-stage renal disease and rapid kidney function decline in a cohort of chronic kidney disease patients","volume":"98","author":"Steubl","year":"2019","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1097\/MNH.0000000000000522","article-title":"Uromodulin in mineral metabolism","volume":"28","author":"Wolf","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, T.-H., Li, K.-J., Yu, C.-L., and Tsai, C.-Y. (2018). Tamm\u2013Horsfall protein is a potent immunomodulatory molecule and a disease biomarker in the urinary system. Molecules, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules23010200"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.1007\/s11255-018-1849-2","article-title":"Prevalence, pathophysiological mechanisms and factors affecting urolithiasis","volume":"50","author":"Khan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. Urol. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1457","DOI":"10.1002\/wnan.1457","article-title":"ELISA-type assays of trace biomarkers using microfluidic methods","volume":"9","author":"Dong","year":"2017","journal-title":"WIREs Nanomed. Nanobiotechnol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gft345","article-title":"Determination of uromodulin in human urine: Influence of storage and processing","volume":"29","author":"Youhanna","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.17116\/labs20187110-14","article-title":"Clinical informativity of postgenomic modification of uromodulin","volume":"7","author":"Landa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lab. Sluz."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2273","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2006.073569","article-title":"Rapid and simultaneous quantification of 4 urinary proteins by piezoelectric quartz crystal microbalance immunosensor array","volume":"52","author":"Luo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1016\/0956-5663(96)82739-4","article-title":"A new urea sensor based on combining the surface acoustic wave device with urease extracted from green soya bean and its application\u2014determination of urea in human urine","volume":"11","author":"Liu","year":"1996","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gaddes, D.E., and Tadigadapa, S. (November, January 30). Microcalorimetric detection of creatinine in urine. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE SENSORS, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSENS.2016.7808469"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lan, J.-W., Hsieh, C.-H., Huang, I.-Y., Lin, Y.-C., Tsai, T.-Y., and Wang, C.-C. (2017). Highly sensitive FPW-based microsystem for rapid detection of tetrahydrocannabinol in human urine. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17122760"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7423","DOI":"10.3390\/s120607423","article-title":"A urinary Bcl-2 surface acoustic wave biosensor for early ovarian cancer detection","volume":"12","author":"Onen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mehlhorn, A., Rahimi, P., and Joseph, Y. (2018). Aptamer-based biosensors for antibiotic detection: A review. Biosensors, 8.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201804.0343.v1"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9450","DOI":"10.3390\/s111009450","article-title":"Biosensor applications in the field of antibiotic research\u2014A review of recent developments","volume":"11","author":"Bendas","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"075205","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/19\/7\/075205","article-title":"A frequency of the quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) that is not affected by the viscosity of a liquid","volume":"19","author":"Itoh","year":"2008","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01337937","article-title":"Verwendung von Schwingquarzen zur Wgung dnner Schichten und zur Mikrowgung","volume":"155","author":"Sauerbrey","year":"1959","journal-title":"Z. Physik"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(00)00550-5","article-title":"The quartz crystal microbalance: Mass sensitivity, viscoelasticity and acoustic amplification","volume":"70","author":"Lucklum","year":"2000","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1039\/a702998e","article-title":"Mechanical behaviour of films on the quartz microbalance","volume":"107","author":"Kanazawa","year":"1997","journal-title":"Faraday Disc."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martin, S.J., Wessendorf, K.O., Gebert, C.T., Frye, G.C., Cernosek, R.W., Casaus, L., and Mitchell, M.A. (1993, January 2\u20134). Measuring liquid properties with smooth and textured-surface resonators. Proceedings of the 1993 IEEE International Frequency Control Symposium, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.","DOI":"10.2172\/139545"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1081\/AL-200056171","article-title":"From quartz crystal microbalance to fundamental principles of mass measurements","volume":"38","author":"Mecea","year":"2005","journal-title":"Anal. Lett."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1006\/jcis.2000.6882","article-title":"Monitoring protein fouling of metal surfaces via a quartz crystal microbalance","volume":"227","author":"Murray","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/1807647","article-title":"Development of QCM biosensor with specific cow milk protein antibody for candidate milk adulteration detection","volume":"2016","author":"Sakti","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Sens."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1080\/09168451.2017.1281724","article-title":"Monitoring of adsorption behaviors of bovine serum albumin onto a stainless steel surface by the quartz crystal microbalance based on admittance analysis","volume":"81","author":"Hagiwara","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113899","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ab.2020.113899","article-title":"In-line detection of monoclonal antibodies in the effluent of protein A chromatography with QCM sensor","volume":"608","author":"Kisovec","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oseev, A., Mukhin, N., Elie-Caille, C., Boireau, W., Lucklum, R., Lecompte, T., Remy-Martin, F., Manceau, J.-F., Chollet, F., and Leblois, T. (2020). Topology challenge for the assessment of living cell deposits with shear bulk acoustic biosensor. Nanomaterials, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano10102079"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oseev, A., Lucklum, R., Zubtsov, M., Schmidt, M.-P., Mukhin, N.V., and Hirsch, S. (2017). SAW-Based phononic crystal microfluidic sensor\u2014Microscale realization of velocimetry approaches for integrated analytical platform applications. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17102187"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mukhin, N., Kutia, M., Oseev, A., Steinmann, U., Palis, S., and Lucklum, R. (2019). Narrow band solid-liquid composite arrangements: Alternative solutions for phononic crystal-based liquid sensors. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19173743"},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Bono, M.J., and Reygaert, W.C. (2020). Urinary Tract Infection, StatPearls Publishing. [Updated 21 November 2020]."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ki.5002708","article-title":"24-h uric acid excretion and the risk of kidney stones","volume":"73","author":"Curhan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5347(17)32788-X","article-title":"Zeta potential distribution on calcium oxalate crystal and Tamm\u2013Horsfall protein surface analyzed with Doppler electrophoretic light scattering","volume":"152","author":"Boeve","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1515\/CCLM.2005.102","article-title":"Effects of urine dilution on quantity, size and aggregation of calcium oxalate crystals induced in vitro by an oxalate load","volume":"43","author":"Guerra","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin. Chem. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1038\/ejcn.2016.269","article-title":"Criterion values for urine-specific gravity and urine color representing adequate water intake in healthy adults","volume":"71","author":"Perrier","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S193","DOI":"10.1007\/s11739-012-0802-0","article-title":"Hypoalbuminemia","volume":"7","author":"Gatta","year":"2012","journal-title":"Intern. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mam.2011.12.002","article-title":"Human serum albumin: From bench to bedside","volume":"33","author":"Fanali","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Asp. Med."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodhyd.2010.11.011","article-title":"Investigation of bovine serum albumin denaturation using ultrasonic spectroscopy","volume":"25","author":"Povey","year":"2011","journal-title":"Food Hydrocoll."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(18)75777-3","article-title":"The specific gravity of synthetic solutions of serum albumin and serum globulin","volume":"104","author":"Nugent","year":"1934","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4005","DOI":"10.1021\/bi00798a001","article-title":"Differences between bovine and human serum albumins. Binding isotherms, optical rotatory dispersion, viscosity, hydrogen ion titration, and fluorescence effects","volume":"10","author":"Steinhardt","year":"1971","journal-title":"Biochemistry"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bioelechem.2011.09.004","article-title":"Physico-chemical characterization of bovine serum albumin in solution and as deposited on surfaces","volume":"87","author":"Jachimska","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bioelectrochemistry"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00211402","article-title":"The subdomain structure of human serum albumin in solution under different pH conditions studied by small angle X-ray scattering","volume":"24","author":"Olivieril","year":"1995","journal-title":"Eur. Biophys. J."},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"423","article-title":"The size of human serum albumin molecules in solution","volume":"46","author":"Kiselev","year":"2001","journal-title":"Biophysics"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.3934\/biophy.2020017","article-title":"Macromolecular sizes of serum albumins in its aqueous solutions","volume":"7","author":"Khorolskyi","year":"2020","journal-title":"AIMS Biophys."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6866","DOI":"10.1021\/la800548p","article-title":"Characterization of globular protein solutions by dynamic light scattering, electrophoretic mobility, and viscosity measurements","volume":"24","author":"Jachimska","year":"2008","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.btre.2016.01.002","article-title":"Role of pH-induced structural change in protein aggregation in foam fractionation of bovine serum albumin","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.2621","article-title":"Matching cellular dimensions with molecular sizes","volume":"14","author":"Reth","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, D., Kroe-Barrett, R., Singh, S., and Laue, T. (2019). IgG Charge: Practical and biological implications. Antibodies, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/antib8010024"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01025246","article-title":"Photon correlation spectroscopy of human IgG","volume":"7","author":"Feder","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Protein Chem."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI104498","article-title":"A molecular abnormality of urinary mucoprotein in cystic fibrosis of the pancreas","volume":"41","author":"Maxfield","year":"1962","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3002(61)90251-7","article-title":"Molecular forms of human urinary mucoprotein present under physiological conditions","volume":"49","author":"Maxfield","year":"1961","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1731","DOI":"10.1002\/bip.360100925","article-title":"Determination of the diffusion coefficient and molecular weight of Tamm-Horsfall glycoprotein by intensity fluctuation spectroscopy","volume":"10","author":"Oliver","year":"1971","journal-title":"Biopolymers"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, Q., Huang, P.M., and Violante, A. (2008). Adsorption of biopolymers, with special emphasis on globular proteins. Soil Mineral Microbe-Organic Interactions, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-77686-4"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Norde, W., Buijs, J., and Lyklema, H. (2005). Adsorption of globular proteins. Fundamentals of Interface and Colloid Science, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/S1874-5679(05)80007-8"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1016\/0927-7765(94)80066-9","article-title":"Globular proteins at solid\/liquid interfaces","volume":"2","author":"Haynes","year":"1994","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1016\/S0142-9612(01)00122-3","article-title":"Hemocompatibility of heparin-coated surfaces and the role of selective plasma protein adsorption","volume":"23","author":"Weber","year":"2002","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9797(03)00073-0","article-title":"Investigation of protein adsorption and electrochemical behavior at a gold electrode","volume":"261","author":"Moulton","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsusc.2005.02.012","article-title":"Protein adsorption on solid-liquid interfaces monitored by laser-ellipsometry","volume":"252","author":"Seitz","year":"2005","journal-title":"Appl. Surf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-0728(83)80209-5","article-title":"Total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) as a quantitative probe of protein adsorption","volume":"150","author":"Rockhold","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem. Interf. Electrochem."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"022016","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/18\/2\/022016","article-title":"Detection of human serum albumin adsorption on titania surface using surface plasmon resonance under various pH","volume":"18","author":"Ii","year":"2011","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelechem.2003.10.031","article-title":"Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and quartz crystal nanobalance (EQCN) studies of insulin adsorption on Pt","volume":"564","author":"Wright","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfb.2008.05.010","article-title":"Bovine serum albumin adsorption on nano-rough platinum surfaces studied by QCM-D","volume":"66","author":"Rechendorff","year":"2008","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces"},{"key":"ref_92","first-page":"415","article-title":"The influence of surface potential on the kinetics of bovine serum albumin adsorption on a biomedical grade 316LVM stainless steel surface","volume":"5","author":"Ahmed","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1016\/0142-9612(88)90085-3","article-title":"Albumin adsorption on metal surfaces","volume":"9","author":"Williams","year":"1988","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_94","first-page":"11356","article-title":"Functional analysis of UMOD gene and its effect on inflammatory cytokines in serum of essential hypertension patients","volume":"8","author":"Jian","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Clin. Exp. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1552","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1519803113","article-title":"A structured interdomain linker directs self-polymerization of human uromodulin","volume":"113","author":"Bokhove","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1503\/cmaj.061590","article-title":"Urine proteomics: The present and future of measuring urinary protein components in disease","volume":"177","author":"Barratt","year":"2007","journal-title":"CMAJ Can. Med. Assoc. J."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20159","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-56693-4","article-title":"New artificial urine protocol to better imitate human urine","volume":"9","author":"Sarigul","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00750100","article-title":"Human urine\u2014Chemical composition and fertilizer use efficiency","volume":"40","author":"Kirchmann","year":"1994","journal-title":"Fertil. Res."},{"key":"ref_99","first-page":"695281","article-title":"The importance of the ionic product for water to understand the physiology of the acid-base balance in humans","volume":"2014","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biomed. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1122\/1.550692","article-title":"Effective density and viscosity of a suspension","volume":"39","author":"Poletto","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Rheol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15143","DOI":"10.1039\/C5RA21068B","article-title":"The effect of protein concentration on the viscosity of a recombinant albumin solution formulation","volume":"6","author":"Alexander","year":"2016","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"746","DOI":"10.2174\/1389203719666171213114919","article-title":"Viscosity control of protein solution by small solutes: A review","volume":"19","author":"Hong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Protein Pept. Sci."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2258","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.69.8.2258","article-title":"Simultaneous determination of viscosity and density of protein solutions by magnetic suspension","volume":"69","author":"Kupke","year":"1972","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-8949\/70\/2-3\/008","article-title":"Einstein\u2013Smoluchowski diffusion equation: A discussion","volume":"70","author":"Islam","year":"2004","journal-title":"Phys. Scr."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5488","DOI":"10.1063\/1.481115","article-title":"The Smoluchowski diffusion equation for structured macromolecules near structured surfaces","volume":"112","author":"Peters","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1063\/1.451612","article-title":"Diffusion in potentials. A method for solving the Smoluchowski equation","volume":"85","author":"Benesi","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1238\/Physica.Regular.059a00391","article-title":"Viscoelastic acoustic response of layered polymer films at fluid-solid interfaces: Continuum mechanics approach","volume":"59","author":"Voinova","year":"1999","journal-title":"Phys. Scr."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95313","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4963298","article-title":"Separate density and viscosity measurements of unknown liquid using quartz crystal microbalance","volume":"6","author":"Tan","year":"2016","journal-title":"AIP Adv."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Doy, N., McHale, G., Newton, M.I., Hardacre, C., Ge, R., Allen, R.W., and MacInnes, J.M. (2009, January 25\u201328). Separate density and viscosity determination of room temperature ionic liquids using dual Quartz Crystal Microbalances. Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE Sensors, Christchurch, New Zealand.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSENS.2009.5398160"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10604","DOI":"10.3390\/s120810604","article-title":"Resolution in QCM sensors for the viscosity and density of liquids: Application to lead acid batteries","volume":"12","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/7\/2555\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T13:58:40Z","timestamp":1760363920000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/7\/2555"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,6]]},"references-count":110,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4]]}},"alternative-id":["s21072555"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21072555","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,6]]}}}