{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,3]],"date-time":"2026-03-03T08:22:24Z","timestamp":1772526144974,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":86,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,7]],"date-time":"2021-04-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1617753600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Long Range Wide Area Network (LoRaWAN) has rapidly become one of the key enabling technologies for the development of Internet of Things (IoT) architectures. A wide range of different solutions relying on this communication technology can be found in the literature: nevertheless, the most part of these architectures focus on single task systems. Conversely, the aim of this paper is to present the architecture of a LoRaWAN infrastructure gathering under the same network different typologies of services within one of the most significant sub-systems of the Smart City ecosystem (i.e., the Smart Waste Management). The proposed architecture exploits the whole range of different LoRaWAN classes, integrating nodes of growing complexity according to the different functions. The lowest level of this architecture is occupied by smart bins that simply collect data about their status. Moving on to upper levels, smart drop-off containers allow the interaction with users as well as the implementation of asynchronous downlink queries. At the top level, Video Surveillance Units (VSUs) are provided with machine learning capabilities for the detection of the presence of fire nearby bins or drop-off containers, thus fully implementing the Edge Computing paradigm. The proposed network infrastructure and its subsystems have been tested in a laboratory and in the field. This study has enhanced the readiness level of the proposed technology to Technology Readiness Level (TRL) 3.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21082600","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,7]],"date-time":"2021-04-07T21:49:06Z","timestamp":1617832146000},"page":"2600","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":49,"title":["A Multi-Layer LoRaWAN Infrastructure for Smart Waste Management"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"David","family":"Baldo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering and Mathematics, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7076-1938","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandro","family":"Mecocci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering and Mathematics, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9093-5162","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefano","family":"Parrino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering and Mathematics, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6311-7332","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giacomo","family":"Peruzzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering and Mathematics, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3991-8858","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandro","family":"Pozzebon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering and Mathematics, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cerchecci, M., Luti, F., Mecocci, A., Parrino, S., Peruzzi, G., and Pozzebon, A. (2018). A low power IoT sensor node architecture for waste management within smart cities context. Sensors, 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18041282"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Addabbo, T., Fort, A., Mecocci, A., Mugnaini, M., Parrino, S., Pozzebon, A., and Vignoli, V. (2019, January 11\u201313). A LoRa-based IoT Sensor Node for Waste Management Based on a Customized Ultrasonic Transceiver. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE Sensors Applications Symposium (SAS), Sophia Antipolis, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/SAS.2019.8705980"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kamm, M., Gau, M., Schneider, J., and Vom Brocke, J. (2020, January 7). Smart Waste Collection Processes-A Case Study about Smart Device Implementation. Proceedings of the 53rd Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Honolulu, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.24251\/HICSS.2020.810"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Melakessou, F., Kugener, P., Alnaffakh, N., Faye, S., and Khadraoui, D. (2020). Heterogeneous Sensing Data Analysis for Commercial Waste Collection. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20040978"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nirde, K., Mulay, P.S., and Chaskar, U.M. (2017, January 15\u201316). IoT based solid waste management system for smart city. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Intelligent Computing and Control Systems (ICICCS), Madurai, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCONS.2017.8250546"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"423","article-title":"Smart city application: Internet of things (IoT) technologies based smart waste collection using data mining approach and ant colony optimization","volume":"14","author":"Oralhan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. Arab. J. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1574","DOI":"10.1007\/s10163-018-0720-y","article-title":"IoT-based waste management system monitored by cloud","volume":"20","author":"Misra","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Mater. Cycles Waste"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hayati, A.P., Emalya, N., Munawar, E., Schwarzb\u00f6ck, T., Lederer, J., and Fellner, J. (2017, January 20\u201321). Analysis the potential gas production of old municipal solid waste landfill as an alternative energy source: Preliminary results. Proceedings of the IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, Banda Aceh, Indonesia.","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/334\/1\/012031"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singhvi, R.K., Lohar, R.L., Kumar, A., Sharma, R., Sharma, L.D., and Saraswat, R.K. (2019, January 18\u201319). IoT BasedSmart Waste Management System: India prospective. Proceedings of the 2019 4th International Conference on Internet of Things: Smart Innovation and Usages (IoT-SIU), Ghaziabad, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/IoT-SIU.2019.8777698"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"232","article-title":"Developing and Implementing Software Solutions to Integrate Waste Collecting Systems into Smart City Infrastructures","volume":"13","author":"Georgescu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Res. Sci. Today"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pardini, K., Rodrigues, J.J., Hassan, S.A., Kumar, N., and Furtado, V. (2018, January 27\u201330). Smart Waste Bin: A New Approach for Waste Management in Large Urban Centers. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE 88th Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC-Fall), Chicago, IL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/VTCFall.2018.8690984"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Soh, Z.H.C., Husa, M.A.A.H., Abdullah, S.A.C., and Shafie, M.A. (2019, January 27\u201328). Smart Waste Collection Monitoring and Alert System via IoT. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE 9th Symposium on Computer Applications & Industrial Electronics (ISCAIE), Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Draz, U., Ali, T., Khan, J.A., Majid, M., and Yasin, S. (2017, January 14\u201316). A real-time smart dumpsters monitoring and garbage collection system. Proceedings of the 2017 Fifth International Conference on Aerospace Science & Engineering (ICASE), Islamabad, Pakistan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICASE.2017.8374268"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Devi, P., Ravindra, W.S., and Prakash, S.S. (2018, January 11\u201312). An IoT Enabled Smart Waste Management System in Concern with Indian Smart Cities. Proceedings of the 2018 2nd International Conference on Trends in Electronics and Informatics (ICOEI), Tirunelveli, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICOEI.2018.8553764"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Srinivas, M., Benedict, S., and Sunny, B.C. (2019, January 6\u20138). IoT Cloud based Smart Bin for Connected Smart Cities-A Product Design Approach. Proceedings of the 2019 10th International Conference on Computing, Communication and Networking Technologies (ICCCNT), Kanpur, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCCNT45670.2019.8944558"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Kishendran, A., Muniandy, L., Nasir, A.F.A., Razak, N.H., Adam, A., and Zakaria, M.A. (2018, January 8). Smart Waste Management System (SWMS) based on Internet of Things (IoT). Proceedings of the Symposium on Electrical, Mechatronics and Applied Science 2018 (SEMA\u201918), Maleka, Malaysia."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"99","article-title":"IOT Smart garbage monitoring system in cities-An effective way to promote smart city","volume":"7","author":"Sai","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Res. Comput. Sci. Softw. Eng."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Rahman, N.M.F., Manjang, S., and Zainuddin, Z. (2017, January 24\u201327). Water level monitoring using ultrasonic-pipe in open channel. Proceedings of the 2017 15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR): International Symposium on Electrical and Computer Engineering, Nusa Dua, Indonesia."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2015.11.025","article-title":"Theoretical model and implementation of a real time intelligent bin status monitoring system using rule based decision algorithms","volume":"48","author":"Hannan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, A., Aggarwal, P., and Arora, R. (2016, January 7\u20139). IoT based waste collection system using infrared sensors. Proceedings of the 2016 5th International Conference on Reliability, Infocom Technologies and Optimization (Trends and Future Directions) (ICRITO), Noida, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRITO.2016.7785008"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"495","article-title":"GSM-based notification system and location tagging using GPS for smart recycle bin","volume":"8","author":"Wahab","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Mach. Learn. Comput."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elhassan, R., Ahmed, M.A., and AbdAlhalem, R. (2019, January 15\u201316). Smart Waste Management System for Crowded area: Makkah and Holy Sites as a Model. Proceedings of the 2019 4th MEC International Conference on Big Data and Smart City (ICBDSC), Muscat, Oman.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICBDSC.2019.8645576"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Jabi, M., and Diab, M. (2017, January 6\u20137). IoT-enabled citizen attractive waste management system. Proceedings of the 2017 2nd International Conference on the Applications of Information Technology in Developing Renewable Energy Processes & Systems (IT-DREPS), Amman, Jordan.","DOI":"10.1109\/IT-DREPS.2017.8277804"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guerra, E., Bolea, Y., Gamiz, J., and Grau, A. (2020). Design and implementation of a virtual sensor network for smart waste water monitoring. Sensors, 2.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20020358"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.15623\/ijret.2015.0403021","article-title":"Smart garbage collection system in residential area","volume":"4","author":"Prajakta","year":"2015","journal-title":"IJRET Int. J. Res. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1016\/j.giq.2016.06.004","article-title":"Privacy concerns in smart cities","volume":"33","year":"2016","journal-title":"Gov. Inf. Q."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2018.1700707","article-title":"Fog computing architecture, evaluation, and future research directions","volume":"56","author":"Aazam","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iot.2020.100177","article-title":"The fog cloud of things: A survey on concepts, architecture, standards, tools, and and applications","volume":"9","author":"Alli","year":"2020","journal-title":"Internet Things"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1433","DOI":"10.1007\/s11276-019-02208-y","article-title":"Fog computing applications in smart cities: A systematic survey","volume":"26","author":"Javadzadeh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Wirel. Netw."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3057266","article-title":"Fog computing for sustainable smart cities: A survey","volume":"50","author":"Perera","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saroa, M.K., and Aron, R. (2018, January 11\u201313). Fog computing and its role in development of smart applications. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Conference on Parallel & Distributed Processing with Applications, Ubiquitous Computing & Communications, Big Data & Cloud Computing, Social Computing & Networking, Sustainable Computing & Communications (ISPA\/IUCC\/BDCloud\/SocialCom\/SustainCom), Melbourne, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/BDCloud.2018.00166"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garach, P.V., and Thakkar, R. (2017, January 22\u201323). A survey on FOG computing for smart waste management system. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Intelligent Communication and Computational Techniques (ICCT), Jaipur, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/INTELCCT.2017.8324058"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152847","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2948399","article-title":"What the Fog? Edge Computing Revisited: Promises, Applications and Future Challenges","volume":"7","author":"Gedeon","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10200","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.2987070","article-title":"Edge Computing Enabled Smart Cities: A Comprehensive Survey","volume":"7","author":"Khan","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sarker, V.K., Queralta, J.P., Gia, T.N., Tenhunen, H., and Westerlund, T. (2019, January 10\u201313). A survey on lora for iot: Integrating edge computing. Proceedings of the 2019 Fourth International Conference on Fog and Mobile Edge Computing (FMEC), Rome, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/FMEC.2019.8795313"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Masri, E., Diabate, I., Jain, R., Lam, M.H., and Nathala, S.R. (2018, January 10\u201313). Recycle. io: An IoT-enabled framework for urban waste management. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Conference on Big Data, Seattle, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/BigData.2018.8622117"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qureshi, B., Kawlaq, K., Koubaa, A., Saeed, B., and Younis, M. (2019, January 1\u20133). A Commodity SBC-Edge Cluster for Smart Cities. Proceedings of the 2019 2nd International Conference on Computer Applications & Information Security (ICCAIS), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.","DOI":"10.1109\/CAIS.2019.8769500"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iot.2018.11.004","article-title":"iot service ecosystem for smart cities: The #smartme project","volume":"5","author":"Bruneo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Internet Things"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shyam, G.K., Manvi, S.S., and Bharti, P. (2017, January 23\u201324). Smart waste management using Internet-of-Things (IoT). Proceedings of the 2017 2nd International Conference on Computing and Communications Technologies (ICCCT), Chennai, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCCT2.2017.7972276"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46193","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2979015","article-title":"Quantum GIS based Descriptive and Predictive Data Analysis for Effective Planning of Waste Management","volume":"8","author":"Ahmad","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Costa, B.S., Bernardes, A.C., Pereira, J.V., Zampa, V.H., Pereira, V.A., Matos, G.F., Soares, E.A., Soares, C.L., and Silva, A.F. (2018, January 22\u201325). Artificial intelligence in automated sorting in trash recycling. Proceedings of the Anais do XV Encontro Nacional de Intelig\u00eancia Artificial e Computacional, S\u00e3o Paulo, Brazil.","DOI":"10.5753\/eniac.2018.4416"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Sunny, M.S.H., Dipta, D.R., Hossain, S., Faruque, H.M.R., and Hossain, E. (2019, January 3\u20135). Design of a Convolutional Neural Network Based Smart Waste Disposal System. Proceedings of the 2019 1st International Conference on Advances in Science, Engineering and Robotics Technology (ICASERT), Dhaka, Bangladesh."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, S., Mehta, K.S., Bhattacharya, N., Prasad, J., Lakshmi, S.K., Subramaniam, K.V., and Sitaram, D. (2017, January 14\u201316). Identifying uncollected garbage in urban areas using crowdsourcing and machine learning. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Region 10 Symposium (TENSYMP), Cochin, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/TENCONSpring.2017.8070078"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, S., Venkat, S., and Jayavel, K. (2017, January 21\u201322). Autonomous smart waste collection system using internet of things. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Power, Control, Signals and Instrumentation Engineering (ICPCSI), Chennai, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICPCSI.2017.8391896"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Joshi, J., Reddy, J., Reddy, P., Agarwal, A., Agarwal, R., Bagga, A., and Bhargava, A. (2016, January 11\u201312). Cloud computing based smart garbage monitoring system. Proceedings of the 2016 3rd International Conference on Electronic Design (ICED), Phuket, Thailand.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICED.2016.7804609"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2019.2915572","article-title":"Automated Machine Learning Approach for Smart Waste Management Systems","volume":"16","author":"Rutqvist","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vu, D.D., and Kaddoum, G. (2017, January 2\u20133). A waste city management system for smart cities applications. Proceedings of the 2017 Advances in Wireless and Optical Communications (RTUWO), Riga, Latvia.","DOI":"10.1109\/RTUWO.2017.8228538"},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"6138637","article-title":"Waste Management System Using IoT-Based Machine Learning in University","volume":"2020","author":"Phuc","year":"2020","journal-title":"Wirel. Commun. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.17533\/udea.redin.20190736","article-title":"Waste generation prediction under uncertainty in smart cities through deep neuroevolution","volume":"93","author":"Camero","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rev. Fac. Ing. Univ. Antioq."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vafeiadis, T., Nizamis, A., Pavlopoulos, V., Giugliano, L., Rousopoulou, V., Ioannidis, D., and Tzovaras, D. (2019, January 29\u201331). Data Analytics Platform for the Optimization of Waste Management Procedures. Proceedings of the 2019 15th International Conference on Distributed Computing in Sensor Systems (DCOSS), Santorini Island, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/DCOSS.2019.00074"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Folianto, F., Low, Y.S., and Yeow, W.L. (2015, January 7\u20139). Smartbin: Smart waste management system. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE Tenth International Conference on Intelligent Sensors, Sensor Networks and Information Processing (ISSNIP), Singapore.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISSNIP.2015.7106974"},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"74","article-title":"Smart City waste management system using GSM","volume":"35","author":"Zavare","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Sci. Trends Technol."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Yusof, N.M., Jidin, A.Z., and Rahim, M.I. (2016, January 4\u20135). Smart garbage monitoring system for waste management. Proceedings of the MATEC Web of Conferences, Engineering Technology International Conference 2016 (ETIC 2016), Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Lozano, \u00c1., Caridad, J., De Paz, J.F., Villarrubia Gonzalez, G., and Bajo, J. (2008). Smart waste collection system with low consumption LoRaWAN nodes and route optimization. Sensors, 5."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saha, H.N., Auddy, S., Pal, S., Kumar, S., Pandey, S., Singh, R., Singh, A.K., Banerjee, S., Ghosh, D., and Saha, S. (2017, January 16\u201318). Waste management using Internet of Things (IoT). Proceedings of the 8th Annual Industrial Automation and Electromechanical Engineering Conference, Bangkok, Thailand.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEMECON.2017.8079623"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bharadwaj, A.S., Rego, R., and Chowdhury, A. (2016, January 16\u201318). IoT based solid waste management system: A conceptual approach with an architectural solution as a smart city application. Proceedings of the IEEE Annual India Conference, Bangalore, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/INDICON.2016.7839147"},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"(2021, January 22). Bigbelly. Available online: https:\/\/bigbelly.com."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"(2021, January 22). Contelligent. Available online: https:\/\/contelligent.com\/solutions\/for-waste-recycling-compactors."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"(2021, January 22). Bine. Available online: https:\/\/bine.world."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"(2021, January 22). Ecobins. Available online: http:\/\/ecobins.pl\/en\/homepage\/."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"(2021, January 22). Ecomobile. Available online: https:\/\/www.ecomobile.hr\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"(2021, January 22). Nordsense. Available online: https:\/\/nordsense.com."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"LoRa Alliance (2020, April 01). LoRaWAN 1.0.3 Regional Parameters 2018. Available online: https:\/\/lora-alliance.org\/sites\/default\/files\/2018-07\/lorawan_regional_parameters_v1.0.3reva_0.pdf."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pardini, K., Rodrigues, J.J., Kozlov, S.A., Kumar, N., and Furtado, V. (2019). IoT-based solid waste management solutions: A survey. J. Sens. Actuators Netw., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jsan8010005"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pardini, K., Rodrigues, J.J., Diallo, O., Das, A.K., de Albuquerque, V.H.C., and Kozlov, S.A. (2020). A Smart Waste Management Solution Geared towards Citizens. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20082380"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parri, L., Parrino, S., Peruzzi, G., and Pozzebon, A. (2020). Offshore LoRaWAN Networking: Transmission Performances Analysis Under Different Environmental Conditions. IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas.","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2020.3031193"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1058","DOI":"10.1109\/LWC.2018.2855744","article-title":"LoRa transceiver with improved characteristics","volume":"7","author":"Jovalekic","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Wireless Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jovalekic, N., Drndarevic, V., Pietrosemoli, E., Darby, I., and Zennaro, M. (2018). Experimental study of LoRa transmission over seawater. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18092853"},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"(2020, April 03). Available online: http:\/\/ww1.microchip.com\/downloads\/en\/DeviceDoc\/20001826D.pdf."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"(2020, April 03). Available online: http:\/\/ww1.microchip.com\/downloads\/en\/devicedoc\/doc8006.pdf."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"(2020, April 03). Available online: https:\/\/www.makerguides.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/02\/JSN-SR04T-Datasheet.pdf."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"(2020, April 03). Available online: https:\/\/www.analog.com\/media\/en\/technical-documentation\/data-sheets\/TMP35_36_37.pdf."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"(2020, April 03). Available online: https:\/\/cdn-learn.adafruit.com\/assets\/assets\/000\/010\/132\/original\/MS-100906.pdf."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"(2020, April 03). Available online: https:\/\/www.hoperf.com\/data\/upload\/portal\/20190801\/RFM95W-V2.0.pdf."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"(2020, April 04). Available online: https:\/\/semtech.my.salesforce.com\/sfc\/p\/#E0000000JelG\/a\/2R0000001OKs\/Bs97dmPXeatnbdoJNVMIDaKDlQz8q1N_gxDcgqi7g2o."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"(2020, April 07). Available online: https:\/\/dam-assets.fluke.com\/s3fs-public\/175_____umeng0200.pdf."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mehta, P., Kumar, A., and Bhattacharjee, S. (2020, January 2\u20134). Fire and gun violence based anomaly detection system using deep neural networks. Proceedings of the 2020 International Conference on Electronics and Sustainable Communication Systems (ICESC), Coimbatore, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICESC48915.2020.9155625"},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"HikVision (2021, April 06). 3MP Network Mini PTZ Dome Camera Datasheet. Available online: https:\/\/www.hikvision.com\/uploadfile\/image\/10468_CUsersliuheyangDesktopDS2DE3304WDE160531.pdf."},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"Shenzhen Rakwireless Technology Co., Ltd. (2020, March 31). RAK831 Lora Gateway Datasheet V1.3. Available online: http:\/\/docs.rakwireless.com\/en\/LoRa\/RAK831-LoRa-Gateway\/Hardware-Specification\/RAK831%20Datasheet%20V1.3.pdf."},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"(2020, March 31). Available online: https:\/\/semtech.my.salesforce.com\/sfc\/p\/#E0000000JelG\/a\/44000000MDmO\/OfVC_rbxi4JjkT4hLzU1kq4gOXb4POLNRprWlqxRIZs."},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"(2020, March 31). Available online: https:\/\/semtech.my.salesforce.com\/sfc\/p\/#E0000000JelG\/a\/44000000MDnR\/Et1KWLCuNDI6MDagfSPAvqqp.Y869Flgs1LleWyfjDY."},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"(2020, March 31). Available online: https:\/\/www.raspberrypi.org\/products\/raspberry-pi-3-model-b\/."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"(2020, April 01). Available online: https:\/\/nodered.org."},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"(2020, April 01). Available online: https:\/\/nodejs.org\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"(2021, March 07). Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/amineHY\/YOLOv3-for-custum-objects\/tree\/master\/fire\/data\/obj."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"(2021, March 07). Available online: https:\/\/www.cityscapes-dataset.com."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/8\/2600\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T14:12:02Z","timestamp":1760364722000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/8\/2600"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,7]]},"references-count":86,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4]]}},"alternative-id":["s21082600"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21082600","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,7]]}}}