{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T16:38:24Z","timestamp":1784738304035,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,16]],"date-time":"2021-04-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1618531200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Adopting effective techniques to automatically detect and identify small drones is a very compelling need for a number of different stakeholders in both the public and private sectors. This work presents three different original approaches that competed in a grand challenge on the \u201cDrone vs. Bird\u201d detection problem. The goal is to detect one or more drones appearing at some time point in video sequences where birds and other distractor objects may be also present, together with motion in background or foreground. Algorithms should raise an alarm and provide a position estimate only when a drone is present, while not issuing alarms on birds, nor being confused by the rest of the scene. In particular, three original approaches based on different deep learning strategies are proposed and compared on a real-world dataset provided by a consortium of universities and research centers, under the 2020 edition of the Drone vs. Bird Detection Challenge. Results show that there is a range in difficulty among different test sequences, depending on the size and the shape visibility of the drone in the sequence, while sequences recorded by a moving camera and very distant drones are the most challenging ones. The performance comparison reveals that the different approaches perform somewhat complementary, in terms of correct detection rate, false alarm rate, and average precision.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21082824","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,19]],"date-time":"2021-04-19T06:35:53Z","timestamp":1618814153000},"page":"2824","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":139,"title":["Drone vs. Bird Detection: Deep Learning Algorithms and Results from a Grand Challenge"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7118-9734","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Angelo","family":"Coluccia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Innovation Engineering, University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6645-6391","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessio","family":"Fascista","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Innovation Engineering, University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arne","family":"Schumann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fraunhofer Center for Machine Learning, Fraunhofer IOSB, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lars","family":"Sommer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fraunhofer Center for Machine Learning, Fraunhofer IOSB, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2763-4217","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anastasios","family":"Dimou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Research and Technology Hellas, The Visual Computing Lab, Information Technologies Institute, 57001 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9649-9306","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dimitrios","family":"Zarpalas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Research and Technology Hellas, The Visual Computing Lab, Information Technologies Institute, 57001 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5146-0918","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miguel","family":"M\u00e9ndez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Gradiant, Galician Research and Development Center in Advanced Telecommunications, 36310 Vigo, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David","family":"de la Iglesia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Gradiant, Galician Research and Development Center in Advanced Telecommunications, 36310 Vigo, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5516-223X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Iago","family":"Gonz\u00e1lez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Gradiant, Galician Research and Development Center in Advanced Telecommunications, 36310 Vigo, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8538-4194","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jean-Philippe","family":"Mercier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Aerex Avionics Inc., Quebec City, QC G6Z 8G8, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2803-4283","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guillaume","family":"Gagn\u00e9","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Defence Research and Development Canada, Quebec City, QC G3J 1X5, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arka","family":"Mitra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics and Electrical Communication Engineering, Kharagpur 721302, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shobha","family":"Rajashekar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Displays &amp; Graphics CoE, Aerospace, Honeywell, Los Angeles, CA 65479, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elloumi, M., Dhaou, R., Escrig, B., Idoudi, H., and Saidane, L.A. 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