{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]],"date-time":"2026-01-16T18:14:21Z","timestamp":1768587261022,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,20]],"date-time":"2021-05-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1621468800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["62022032, 61875047, 61505041"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62022032, 61875047, 61505041"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005046","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Heilongjiang Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["YQ2019F006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["YQ2019F006"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005046","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["none"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["none"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010009","name":"Heilongjiang Provincial Postdoctoral Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["LBH-Q18052"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LBH-Q18052"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010009","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Combining the merits of non-contact measurement and high sensitivity, the quartz-enhanced photothermal spectroscopy (QEPTS) technique is suitable for measuring acid gases such as hydrogen chloride (HCl). In this invited paper, we report, for the first time, on an ultra-highly sensitive HCl sensor based on the QEPTS technique. A continuous wave, distributed feedback (CW-DFB) fiber-coupled diode laser with emission wavelength of 1.74 \u00b5m was used as the excitation source. A certified mixture of 500 ppm HCl:N2 was adapted as the analyte. Wavelength modulation spectroscopy was used to simplify the data processing. The wavelength modulation depth was optimized. The relationships between the second harmonic (2f) amplitude of HCl-QEPTS signal and the laser power as well as HCl concentration were investigated. An Allan variance analysis was performed to prove that this sensor had good stability and high sensitivity. The proposed HCl-QEPTS sensor can achieve a minimum detection limit (MDL) of ~17 parts per billion (ppb) with an integration time of 130 s. Further improvement of such an HCl-QEPTS sensor performance was proposed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21103563","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,20]],"date-time":"2021-05-20T11:45:57Z","timestamp":1621511157000},"page":"3563","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Ultra-Highly Sensitive Hydrogen Chloride Detection Based on Quartz-Enhanced Photothermal Spectroscopy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9788-7984","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yufei","family":"Ma","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Tunable Laser, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ziting","family":"Lang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Tunable Laser, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ying","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Tunable Laser, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shunda","family":"Qiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Tunable Laser, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yu","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Tunable Laser, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1836","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.33.001836","article-title":"Spatially resolved trace detection of HCl in flames with mid-infrared polarization spectroscopy","volume":"33","author":"Li","year":"2008","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2006.02.039","article-title":"HCl gas monitoring based on a QCM using morpholine-functional styrene-co-chloromethylstyrene copolymer coatings","volume":"120","author":"Matsuguchi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(02)00108-9","article-title":"Optochemical sensor for HCl gas based on tetraphenylporphyrin dispersed in styrene\u2013acrylate copolymers: Effects of glass transition temperature of matrix on HCl detection","volume":"85","author":"Supriyatno","year":"2002","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(01)00565-2","article-title":"Optochemical HCl gas detection using mono-substituted tetraphenylporphin-polymer composite films","volume":"76","author":"Supriyatno","year":"2001","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(96)01942-9","article-title":"Hydrophobic membrane sensors for the optical determination of hydrogen chloride gas","volume":"34","author":"Baron","year":"1996","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2010.05.029","article-title":"Colorimetric and fluorescent sensor constructing from the nanofibrous membrane of porphyrinated polyimide for the detection of hydrogen chloride gas","volume":"148","author":"Lv","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2016.04.114","article-title":"HCl ppb-level detection based on QEPAS sensor using a low resonance frequency quartz tuning fork","volume":"233","author":"Ma","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1007\/s10494-020-00216-z","article-title":"Towards a TDLAS-based spectrometer for absolute HCl measurements in combustion flue gases and a better evaluation of thermal boundary layer effects","volume":"106","author":"Qu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126753","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2019.126753","article-title":"Atmospheric CH4 measurement near a landfill using an ICL-based QEPAS sensor with V-T relaxation self-calibration","volume":"297","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1008","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.21.001008","article-title":"QEPAS based ppb-level detection of CO and N2O using a high power CW DFB-QCL","volume":"21","author":"Ma","year":"2013","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"091114","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4867268","article-title":"Intracavity quartz-enhanced photoacoustic sensor","volume":"104","author":"Borri","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2449","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.423801","article-title":"Trace gas sensing based on single-quartz-enhanced photoacoustic-photothermal dual spectroscopy","volume":"46","author":"Qiao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C120","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.57.00C120","article-title":"QEPAS sensor for breath analysis: A behavior of pressure","volume":"57","author":"Milde","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pacs.2019.100158","article-title":"Quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy employing pilot line manufactured custom tuning forks","volume":"17","author":"Zheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Photoacoustics"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2018.04.139","article-title":"Fiber-ring laser intracavity QEPAS gas sensor using a 7.2 kHz quartz tuning fork","volume":"268","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.418520","article-title":"Multi-pass quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy-based trace gas sensing","volume":"46","author":"Qiao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1007\/s00340-009-3379-1","article-title":"Theoretical analysis of a quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy sensor","volume":"94","author":"Petra","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. B"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"011106","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5013612","article-title":"Recent advances in quartz enhanced photoacoustic sensing","volume":"5","author":"Patimisco","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Rev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6559","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.24.006559","article-title":"Compact quantum cascade laser-based quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy sensor system for detection of carbon disulfide","volume":"24","author":"Waclawek","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1594","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.34.001594","article-title":"Off-beam quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy","volume":"34","author":"Liu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2020.106155","article-title":"Sensitive methane detection based on quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy with a high-power diode laser and wavelet filtering","volume":"132","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Opt. Laser. Eng."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32103","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.26.032103","article-title":"Quartz-tuning-fork enhanced photothermal spectroscopy for ultra-high sensitive trace gas detection","volume":"26","author":"Ma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"011103","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5129014","article-title":"Ultra-high sensitive trace gas detection based on light-induced thermoelastic spectroscopy and a custom quartz tuning fork","volume":"116","author":"Ma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19074","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.393292","article-title":"Light-induced thermo-elastic effect in quartz tuning forks exploited as a photodetector in gas absorption spectroscopy","volume":"28","author":"Russo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100206","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pacs.2020.100206","article-title":"Trace gas sensing based on multi-quartz-enhanced photothermal spectroscopy","volume":"20","author":"Ma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Photoacoustics"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5121","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.418256","article-title":"Quartz-enhanced photoacoustic-photothermal spectroscopy for trace gas sensing","volume":"29","author":"Hu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2017.06.038","article-title":"The HITRAN 2016 molecular spectroscopic database","volume":"203","author":"Gordon","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Ra."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1904","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.44.001904","article-title":"Ultra-high sensitive light-induced thermoelastic spectroscopy sensor with a high Q-factor quartz tuning fork and a multipass cell","volume":"44","author":"He","year":"2019","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"091115","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4943233","article-title":"Compact all-fiber quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy sensor with a 30.72 kHz quartz tuning fork and spatially resolved trace gas detection","volume":"108","author":"Ma","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5834","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.9b00182","article-title":"Ppb-level quartz-enhanced photoacoustic detection of carbon monoxide exploiting a surface grooved tuning fork","volume":"91","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/10\/3563\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:04:47Z","timestamp":1760162687000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/10\/3563"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,20]]},"references-count":30,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5]]}},"alternative-id":["s21103563"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21103563","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,20]]}}}