{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T07:14:12Z","timestamp":1781594052700,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":133,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,21]],"date-time":"2021-05-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1621555200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper presents a comprehensive review of the detection of aflatoxin compounds using carbon allotrope-based sensors. Although aflatoxin M1 and its derivative aflatoxin B1 compounds have been primarily found in milk and other food products, their presence above a threshold concentration causes disastrous health-related anomalies in human beings, such as growth impairment, underweight and even carcinogenic and immunosuppressive effects. Among the many sensors developed to detect the presence of these compounds, the employment of certain carbon allotropes, such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene, has been highly preferred due to their enhanced electromechanical properties. These conductive nanomaterials have shown excellent quantitative performance in terms of sensitivity and selectivity for the chosen aflatoxin compounds. This paper elucidates some of the significant examples of the CNTs and graphene-based sensors measuring Aflatoxin M1 (ATM1) and Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) compounds at low concentrations. The fabrication technique and performance of each of the sensors are shown here, as well as some of the challenges existing with the current sensors.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21113602","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,24]],"date-time":"2021-05-24T00:01:20Z","timestamp":1621814480000},"page":"3602","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":48,"title":["A Review of the Use of Carbon Nanotubes and Graphene-Based Sensors for the Detection of Aflatoxin M1 Compounds in Milk"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Jingrong","family":"Gao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shan","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for NanoScale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park 5042, Australia"},{"name":"School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anindya","family":"Nag","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 251600, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jonathan Woon Chung","family":"Wong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Bioresource and Agriculture, Hong Kong Baptist University, 224 Waterloo Road, Kowloon Tong 999077, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0924-4247(96)01284-8","article-title":"Impact of MEMS technology on society","volume":"56","author":"Bryzek","year":"1996","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Tilli, M., Paulasto-Krockel, M., Petzold, M., Theuss, H., Motooka, T., and Lindroos, V. (2020). Handbook of Silicon Based MEMS Materials and Technologies, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3164","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2014.2375203","article-title":"Technologies for printing sensors and electronics over large flexible substrates: A review","volume":"15","author":"Khan","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8771","DOI":"10.1039\/C9TC01630A","article-title":"A review on inkjet printing of nanoparticle inks for flexible electronics","volume":"7","author":"Nayak","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. C"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Sze, S.M. (1994). Semiconductor Sensors, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jaaniso, R., and Tan, O.K. (2013). Semiconductor Gas Sensors, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1533\/9780857098665"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2021, May 18). Advantages and Disadvantages of Silicon Detectors. Available online: https:\/\/www.nuclear-power.net\/nuclear-engineering\/radiation-detection\/semiconductor-detectors\/silicon-based-semiconductor-detectors\/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-silicon-detectors\/."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340201","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-4484\/23\/34\/340201","article-title":"Nanotechnology-based flexible electronics","volume":"23","author":"Subramanian","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nanotechnology"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1050","DOI":"10.3762\/bjnano.9.98","article-title":"Review on nanoparticles and nanostructured materials: History, sources, toxicity and regulations","volume":"9","author":"Jeevanandam","year":"2018","journal-title":"Beilstein J. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2018.01.025","article-title":"Nanotechnology: Review of concepts and potential application of sensing platforms in food safety","volume":"75","author":"Krishna","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2014.05.023","article-title":"A review of chemical and physical characterisation of atmospheric metallic nanoparticles","volume":"94","author":"Sanderson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4023","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2014.05.022","article-title":"Applications of biosynthesized metallic nanoparticles\u2014A review","volume":"10","author":"Shor","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han, T., Nag, A., Afsarimanesh, N., Akhter, F., Liu, H., Sapra, S., Mukhopadhyay, S., and Xu, Y. (2019). Gold\/Polyimide-Based Resistive Strain Sensors. Electronics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics8050565"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, G., Lu, M., Huang, X., Li, T., and Xu, D. (2018). Application of gold-nanoparticle colorimetric sensing to rapid food safety screening. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18124166"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2018.12.107","article-title":"Direct printing of highly sensitive, stretchable, and durable strain sensor based on silver nanoparticles\/multi-walled carbon nanotubes composites","volume":"161","author":"Min","year":"2019","journal-title":"Compos. Part. B Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1186\/s11671-019-3186-5","article-title":"Wrinkle Structured Network of Silver-Coated Carbon Nanotubes for Wearable Sensors","volume":"14","author":"Yuan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nanoscale Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14273","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.7b02087","article-title":"Copper nanowire-based aerogel with tunable pore structure and its application as flexible pressure sensor","volume":"9","author":"Xu","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2019.10.006","article-title":"A flexible non-enzymatic glucose sensor based on copper nanoparticles anchored on laser-induced graphene","volume":"156","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1900095","DOI":"10.1002\/aelm.201900095","article-title":"Flexible and Transparent Aluminum-Nitride-Based Surface-Acoustic-Wave Device on Polymeric Polyethylene Naphthalate","volume":"5","author":"Lamanna","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Electron. Mater."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100347","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coco.2020.04.013","article-title":"Non-contact, fibrous cellulose acetate\/aluminum flexible electronic-sensor for humidity detecting","volume":"20","author":"Meng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Compos. Commun."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"996","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2015.2496400","article-title":"Novel sensing approach for LPG leakage detection: Part I\u2014Operating mechanism and preliminary results","volume":"16","author":"Nag","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"575","article-title":"Exposure-related health effects of silver and silver compounds: A review","volume":"49","author":"Drake","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ann. Occup. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2016.10.023","article-title":"Flexible carbon nanotube nanocomposite sensor for multiple physiological parameter monitoring","volume":"251","author":"Nag","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335504","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6528\/ab8edd","article-title":"Vibration monitoring based on flexible multi-walled carbon nanotube\/polydimethylsiloxane film sensor and the application on motion signal acquisition","volume":"31","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nanotechnology"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2019.03.053","article-title":"Carbon nanotubes and its gas-sensing applications: A review","volume":"291","author":"Han","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han, T., Nag, A., Simorangkir, R.B., Afsarimanesh, N., Liu, H., Mukhopadhyay, S.C., Xu, Y., Zhadobov, M., and Sauleau, R. (2019). Multifunctional flexible sensor based on laser-induced graphene. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19163477"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2017.12.028","article-title":"Graphene and its sensor-based applications: A review","volume":"270","author":"Nag","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2017.11.022","article-title":"A temperature-compensated graphene sensor for nitrate monitoring in real-time application","volume":"269","author":"Alahi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2018.12.020","article-title":"IoT-based sensing system for phosphate detection using Graphite\/PDMS sensors","volume":"286","author":"Nag","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2018.05.024","article-title":"High-resolution flexible temperature sensor based graphite-filled polyethylene oxide and polyvinylidene fluoride composites for body temperature monitoring","volume":"278","author":"Huang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3597","DOI":"10.3390\/s100403597","article-title":"Flexible temperature sensor array based on a graphite-polydimethylsiloxane composite","volume":"10","author":"Shih","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11225","DOI":"10.1039\/D0RA00327A","article-title":"A highly stretchable strain sensor based on CNT\/graphene\/fullerene-SEBS","volume":"10","author":"Pan","year":"2020","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1007\/s13369-014-1508-6","article-title":"Polymer\u2013fullerene bulk heterojunction-based strain-sensitive flexible organic field-effect transistor","volume":"40","author":"Yasin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arab. J. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4157","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201000417","article-title":"Polythiophene-fullerene based photodetectors: Tuning of spectral response and application in photoluminescence based (bio) chemical sensors","volume":"22","author":"Nalwa","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1186\/1556-276X-8-393","article-title":"Biocompatibility effects of biologically synthesized graphene in primary mouse embryonic fibroblast cells","volume":"8","author":"Gurunathan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nanoscale Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"5361","article-title":"Functionalized carbon nanotubes: Biomedical applications","volume":"7","author":"Vardharajula","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71020","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2881463","article-title":"A transparent strain sensor based on PDMS-embedded conductive fabric for wearable sensing applications","volume":"6","author":"Nag","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2018.08.028","article-title":"3D printed mould-based graphite\/PDMS sensor for low-force applications","volume":"280","author":"Nag","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2016.2617878","article-title":"Tactile sensing from laser-ablated metallized PET films","volume":"17","author":"Nag","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2015.06.137","article-title":"Highly flexible room temperature NO2 sensor based on MWCNTs-WO3 nanoparticles hybrid on a PET substrate","volume":"221","author":"Yaqoob","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2009.03.063","article-title":"Piezoresistive behaviour of flexible PEDOT: PSS based sensors","volume":"139","author":"Latessa","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2971","DOI":"10.1016\/j.orgel.2014.08.044","article-title":"Low-cost and flexible printed graphene\u2013PEDOT: PSS gas sensor for ammonia detection","volume":"15","author":"Seekaew","year":"2014","journal-title":"Org. Electron."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2017.08.008","article-title":"Sensing system for salinity testing using laser-induced graphene sensors","volume":"264","author":"Nag","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2018.12.010","article-title":"Flexible and robust laser-induced graphene heaters photothermally scribed on bare polyimide substrates","volume":"144","author":"Bobinger","year":"2019","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3949","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2017.2705700","article-title":"Wearable flexible sensors: A review","volume":"17","author":"Nag","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2014.08.050","article-title":"Rapid and molecular selective electrochemical sensing of phthalates in aqueous solution","volume":"67","author":"Zia","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111923","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2020.111923","article-title":"Interdigital Sensors: Biomedical, Environmental and Industrial Applications","volume":"305","author":"Afsarimanesh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2018.04.031","article-title":"Performance analysis of flexible printed sensors for robotic arm applications","volume":"276","author":"Nag","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"100004","article-title":"Highly Elastic and Flexible Multi-layered Carbon Black\/Elastomer Composite based Capacitive Sensor Arrays for Soft Robotics","volume":"2","author":"Devaraj","year":"2020","journal-title":"Meas. Sens."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2000547","DOI":"10.1002\/aelm.202000547","article-title":"1D Nanomaterial-Based Highly Stretchable Strain Sensors for Human Movement Monitoring and Human\u2014Robotic Interactive Systems","volume":"6","author":"Dahiya","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Electron. Mater."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1038\/354056a0","article-title":"Synthesis of carbon nanotubes","volume":"354","author":"Iijima","year":"1991","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dresselhaus, M.S., Dresselhaus, G., Eklund, P., and Rao, A. (2000). Carbon nanotubes. The Physics of Fullerene-Based and Fullerene-Related Materials, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-011-4038-6_9"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1126\/science.282.5386.95","article-title":"Solution properties of single-walled carbon nanotubes","volume":"282","author":"Chen","year":"1998","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1853","DOI":"10.1002\/1521-3773(20020603)41:11<1853::AID-ANIE1853>3.0.CO;2-N","article-title":"Functionalization of single-walled carbon nanotubes","volume":"41","author":"Hirsch","year":"2002","journal-title":"Angew. Chem. Int. Ed."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"910","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1496494","article-title":"Electronic properties of multiwalled carbon nanotubes in an embedded vertical array","volume":"81","author":"Li","year":"2002","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1840045","DOI":"10.1142\/S0217979218400453","article-title":"Field emission properties of laser ablated multi-walled carbon nanotubes","volume":"32","author":"Koinkar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Mod. Phys. B"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2495","DOI":"10.1016\/S0008-6223(03)00295-1","article-title":"Electronic properties of double-walled carbon nanotube films","volume":"41","author":"Wei","year":"2003","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2006.03.023","article-title":"Effect of H2O adsorption on the electrical transport properties of double-walled carbon nanotubes","volume":"44","author":"Tang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1634","DOI":"10.1021\/nn800388g","article-title":"Room temperature purification of few-walled carbon nanotubes with high yield","volume":"2","author":"Feng","year":"2008","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1021\/nn9000512","article-title":"Functionalized few-walled carbon nanotubes for mechanical reinforcement of polymeric composites","volume":"3","author":"Hou","year":"2009","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/S1872-5805(09)60024-X","article-title":"Helical multiwalled carbon nanotubes (h-MWCNTs) synthesized by catalytic chemical vapor deposition","volume":"25","author":"Somanathan","year":"2010","journal-title":"New Carbon Mater."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1007\/s40089-018-0252-4","article-title":"Effect of chemical vapor deposition parameters on the diameter of multi-walled carbon nanotubes","volume":"8","author":"Venkatesan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jscs.2018.06.003","article-title":"Growth of wall-controlled MWCNTs by magnetic field assisted arc discharge plasma","volume":"23","author":"Roslan","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Saudi Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1007\/s40089-018-0227-5","article-title":"Synthesis and characterization of long-CNTs by electrical arc discharge in deionized water and NaCl solution","volume":"8","author":"Sari","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlastec.2018.09.055","article-title":"Multi walled carbon nanotube decorated cadmium oxide nanoparticles via pulsed laser ablation in liquid media","volume":"111","author":"Mwafy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Opt. Laser Technol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1016\/S0009-2614(00)00567-4","article-title":"Boron-catalyzed multi-walled carbon nanotube growth with the reduced number of layers by laser ablation","volume":"324","author":"Hirahara","year":"2000","journal-title":"Chem. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physe.2007.10.069","article-title":"Electrolytic synthesis of carbon nanotubes from carbon dioxide in molten salts and their characterization","volume":"40","author":"Novoselova","year":"2008","journal-title":"Phys. E Low-Dimens. Syst. Nanostruc."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Abbasloo, S., Ojaghi-Ilkhchi, M., and Mozammel, M. (2021, May 18). Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes by Molten Salt Electrolysis: A Review. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/profile\/Soodeh-Abbasloo\/publication\/325451967_Synthesis_of_carbon_nanotubes_by_molten_salt_electrolysis_a_review\/links\/5c8dcec645851564fae2a77f\/Synthesis-of-carbon-nanotubes-by-molten-salt-electrolysis-a-review.pdf."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Geim, A.K., and Novoselov, K.S. (2010). The rise of graphene. Nanoscience and Technology: A Collection of Reviews from Nature Journals, World Scientific.","DOI":"10.1142\/9789814287005_0002"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1705380","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201705380","article-title":"3D graphene fibers grown by thermal chemical vapor deposition","volume":"30","author":"Zeng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6969","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemmater.5b02098","article-title":"Highly stretchable and conductive core\u2013sheath chemical vapor deposition graphene fibers and their applications in safe strain sensors","volume":"27","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2013.07.055","article-title":"An improved Hummers method for eco-friendly synthesis of graphene oxide","volume":"64","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2017.04.118","article-title":"Synthesis of graphene oxide using modified hummers method: Solvent influence","volume":"184","author":"Zaaba","year":"2017","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5714","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms6714","article-title":"Laser-induced porous graphene films from commercial polymers","volume":"5","author":"Lin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2000001","DOI":"10.1002\/gch2.202000001","article-title":"Laser-Printed, Flexible Graphene Pressure Sensors","volume":"4","author":"Kaidarova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Glob. Chall."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Radhakrishnan, S., and Mathiyarasu, J. (2019). Graphene\u2013carbon nanotubes modified electrochemical sensors. Graphene-Based Electrochemical Sensors for Biomolecules, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-815394-9.00008-X"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Immanuel, S., Aparna, T., and Sivasubramanian, R. (2019). Graphene\u2013Metal Oxide Nanocomposite Modified Electrochemical Sensors. Graphene-Based Electrochemical Sensors for Biomolecules, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-815394-9.00005-4"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7563","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201500411","article-title":"Graphite oxide to graphene. Biomaterials to bionics","volume":"27","author":"Thompson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2019.03.013","article-title":"Aflatoxin M1 in human breast milk: A global systematic review, meta-analysis, and risk assessment study (Monte Carlo simulation)","volume":"88","author":"Fakhri","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohammadi, H. (2011). A review of aflatoxin M1, milk, and milk products. Flatoxins\u2013Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, InTech.","DOI":"10.5772\/24353"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jia, Y., Zhou, G., Liu, P., Li, Z., and Yu, B. (2019). Recent development of aptamer sensors for the quantification of aflatoxin B1. Appl. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/app9112364"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salari, N., Kazeminia, M., Vaisi-Raygani, A., Jalali, R., and Mohammadi, M. (2020). Aflatoxin M1 in Milk Worldwide from 1988 to 2020: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J. Food Qual., 2020.","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/8862738"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2013.03.048","article-title":"A simple and rapid optical biosensor for detection of aflatoxin B1 based on competitive dispersion of gold nanorods","volume":"47","author":"Xu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.synthmet.2017.12.007","article-title":"A highly sensitive amperometric immunosensor probe based on gold nanoparticle functionalized poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) doped with graphene oxide for efficient detection of aflatoxin B1","volume":"235","author":"Sharma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Synth. Met."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins5050865","article-title":"An ultrasensitive electrochemiluminescent immunoassay for Aflatoxin M1 in milk, based on extraction by magnetic graphene and detection by antibody-labeled CdTe quantumn dots-carbon nanotubes nanocomposite","volume":"5","author":"Gan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Toxins"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1644","DOI":"10.1039\/C7AN02050C","article-title":"A novel reduced graphene oxide\/molybdenum disulfide\/polyaniline nanocomposite-based electrochemical aptasensor for detection of aflatoxin B 1","volume":"143","author":"Geleta","year":"2018","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaminiaris, M.D., Mavrikou, S., Georgiadou, M., Paivana, G., Tsitsigiannis, D.I., and Kintzios, S. (2020). An Impedance Based Electrochemical Immunosensor for Aflatoxin B1 Monitoring in Pistachio Matrices. Chemosensors, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/chemosensors8040121"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6660","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2014-9220","article-title":"Evaluation of analytical assays efficiency to detect aflatoxin M1 in milk from selected areas in Egypt and South Africa","volume":"98","author":"Mwanza","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_89","first-page":"36","article-title":"A critical review on carbon nanotubes","volume":"2","author":"Pitroda","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Constr. Res. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"808","DOI":"10.1111\/1541-4337.12287","article-title":"Current immunoassay methods for the rapid detection of aflatoxin in milk and dairy products","volume":"16","author":"Matabaro","year":"2017","journal-title":"Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Orazem, M.E., and Tribollet, B. (2021, May 18). Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy. New Jersey 2008. Available online: https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1149\/2.20192if\/pdf#page=50.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470381588"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lasia, A. (2002). Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and its applications. Modern Aspects of Electrochemistry, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/0-306-47604-5_1"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jchemed.7b00361","article-title":"A practical beginner\u2019s guide to cyclic voltammetry","volume":"95","author":"Elgrishi","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Chem. Educ."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6097","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jpclett.0c01662","article-title":"Electrophotocatalysis: Cyclic Voltammetry as an Analytical Tool","volume":"11","author":"Costentin","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Veerakumar, P., Sangili, A., Chen, S.-M., Vinothkumar, V., Balu, S., Hung, S.-T., and Lin, K.-C. (2021). Zinc and Sulfur Codoped Iron Oxide Nanocubes Anchored on Carbon Nanotubes for the Detection of Antitubercular Drug Isoniazid. ACS Appl. Nano Mater.","DOI":"10.1021\/acsanm.1c00172"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keru, G., Ndungu, P.G., and Nyamori, V.O. (2013). Nitrogen-doped carbon nanotubes synthesised by pyrolysis of (4-{[(pyridine-4-yl) methylidene] amino} phenyl) ferrocene. J. Nanomater., 2013.","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/750318"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1007\/s13204-011-0013-4","article-title":"Nitrogen-doped carbon nanotubes as a metal catalyst support","volume":"1","author":"Mabena","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Nanosci."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1607","DOI":"10.1039\/C8TA09589B","article-title":"One-pot synthesis of Fe\/N\/S-doped porous carbon nanotubes for efficient oxygen reduction reaction","volume":"7","author":"Tan","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. A"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, C., and Hu, S. (2009). Carbon nanotube-based electrochemical sensors: Principles and applications in biomedical systems. J. Sens., 2009.","DOI":"10.1155\/2009\/187615"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2016.05.013","article-title":"Boron-doped ordered mesoporous carbons for the application of supercapacitors","volume":"207","author":"Gao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2016.01.091","article-title":"Hetero-enzyme-based two-round signal amplification strategy for trace detection of aflatoxin B1 using an electrochemical aptasensor","volume":"80","author":"Zheng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahammad, A., Lee, J.-J., and Rahman, M. (2009). Electrochemical sensors based on carbon nanotubes. Sensors, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/s90402289"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125429","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2019.125429","article-title":"Multi-mycotoxins analysis in liquid milk by UHPLC-Q-Exactive HRMS after magnetic solid-phase extraction based on PEGylated multi-walled carbon nanotubes","volume":"305","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2013.04.040","article-title":"Carboxylated multiwalled carbon nanotubes based biosensor for aflatoxin detection","volume":"185","author":"Singh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ab.2015.10.008","article-title":"Electrochemical immunosensor based on Pd\u2013Au nanoparticles supported on functionalized PDDA-MWCNT nanocomposites for aflatoxin B1 detection","volume":"494","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3353","DOI":"10.1039\/C8AY00815A","article-title":"Simultaneous determination of aflatoxin B1 and zearalenone by magnetic nanoparticle filled amino-modified multi-walled carbon nanotubes","volume":"10","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anal. Methods"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3205","DOI":"10.1007\/s00604-017-2308-y","article-title":"Impedimetric immunoassay for aflatoxin B1 using a cysteine modified gold electrode with covalently immobilized carbon nanotubes","volume":"184","author":"Costa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microchim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"636","DOI":"10.1002\/jssc.202000821","article-title":"Polyethyleneimine-modified magnetic carbon nanotubes as solid-phase extraction adsorbent for the analysis of multi-class mycotoxins in milk via liquid chromatography\u2013tandem mass spectrometry","volume":"44","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Sep. Sci."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abera, B.D., Falco, A., Ibba, P., Cantarella, G., Petti, L., and Lugli, P. (2019). Development of flexible dispense-printed electrochemical immunosensor for aflatoxin M1 detection in milk. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19183912"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1134\/S1061934819070189","article-title":"Amperometric Tyrosinase Biosensors Based on Nanomaterial-Modified Electrodes for Aflatoxin M1","volume":"74","author":"Varlamova","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.coac.2020.08.008","article-title":"Applications of graphene-based sensors for biomedical industries","volume":"91","author":"Singha","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anal. Appl. Graphene Compr. Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2019.01.078","article-title":"A label-free fluorescent aptasensor for the detection of Aflatoxin B1 in food samples using AIEgens and graphene oxide","volume":"198","author":"Jia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, X., Wen, F., Qiao, Q., Zheng, N., Saive, M., Fauconnier, M.-L., and Wang, J. (2019). A novel graphene oxide-based aptasensor for amplified fluorescent detection of aflatoxin M1 in milk powder. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19183840"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1007\/s00604-021-04715-2","article-title":"An ultrasensitive, homogeneous fluorescence quenching immunoassay integrating separation and detection of aflatoxin M 1 based on magnetic graphene composites","volume":"188","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microchim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1007\/s00604-014-1360-0","article-title":"Aptamer based fluorescence recovery assay for aflatoxin B1 using a quencher system composed of quantum dots and graphene oxide","volume":"182","author":"Lu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Microchim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2017.09.035","article-title":"Visual electrochemiluminescence biosensing of aflatoxin M1 based on luminol-functionalized, silver nanoparticle-decorated graphene oxide","volume":"100","author":"Khoshfetrat","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13283","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.7b03329","article-title":"Impedimetric sensor of ss-HSDNA\/reduced graphene oxide aerogel electrode toward aflatoxin B1 detection: Effects of redox mediator charges and hydrodynamic diffusion","volume":"89","author":"Krittayavathananon","year":"2017","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2018.05.041","article-title":"Reduced graphene oxide and gold nanoparticle composite-based solid-phase extraction coupled with ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for the determination of 9 mycotoxins in milk","volume":"264","author":"Jiang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.elecom.2018.08.012","article-title":"A novel aflatoxin B1 biosensor based on a porous anodized alumina membrane modified with graphene oxide and an aflatoxin B1 aptamer","volume":"95","author":"Mo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Electrochem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2699","DOI":"10.1002\/jmr.2699","article-title":"Electrochemical monitoring of aflatoxin M1 in milk samples using silver nanoparticles dispersed on \u03b1-cyclodextrin-GQD s nanocomposite","volume":"31","author":"Shadjou","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Mol. Recognit."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104959","DOI":"10.1016\/j.microc.2020.104959","article-title":"An electrochemiluminescence aptasensor for the ultrasensitive detection of aflatoxin B1 based on gold nanorods\/graphene quantum dots-modified poly (indole-6-carboxylic acid)\/flower-gold nanocomposite","volume":"157","author":"Lu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Microchem. J."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Althagafi, I.I., Ahmed, S.A., and El-Said, W.A. (2019). Fabrication of gold\/graphene nanostructures modified ITO electrode as highly sensitive electrochemical detection of Aflatoxin B1. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0210652"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125747","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2019.125747","article-title":"A facile one-pot green synthesis of \u03b2-cyclodextrin decorated porous graphene nanohybrid as a highly efficient adsorbent for extracting aflatoxins from maize and animal feeds","volume":"311","author":"Tezerji","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116004","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trac.2020.116004","article-title":"Point-of-Care Devices for Pathogen Detections: The Three Most Important Factors to Realize towards Commercialization","volume":"131","author":"Nguyen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trac Trends Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_125","unstructured":"OAM, M.S. (2021, May 18). A Practical Guide to Global Point-of-Care Testing. Available online: https:\/\/www.perlego.com\/book\/1468460\/a-practical-guide-to-global-pointofcare-testing-pdf."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nguyen, T., Chidambara Vinayaka, A., Duong Bang, D., and Wolff, A. (2019). A complete protocol for rapid and low-cost fabrication of polymer microfluidic chips containing three-dimensional microstructures used in point-of-care devices. Micromachines, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi10090624"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nguyen, T., Zo\u00ebga Andreasen, S., Wolff, A., and Duong Bang, D. (2018). From lab on a chip to point of care devices: The role of open source microcontrollers. Micromachines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi9080403"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vashist, S.K. (2017). Point-of-care diagnostics: Recent advances and trends. Biosensors, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios7040062"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shen, L., Li, B., and Qiao, Y. (2018). Fe3O4 nanoparticles in targeted drug\/gene delivery systems. Materials, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma11020324"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4457","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2015.2421348","article-title":"Occupancy detection at smart home using real-time dynamic thresholding of flexiforce sensor","volume":"15","author":"Nag","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3873","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.408975","article-title":"Detection of aflatoxin M1 by fiber cavity attenuated phase shift spectroscopy","volume":"29","author":"Ghauri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Macdonald, J.R., and Johnson, W.B. (2018). Fundamentals of impedance spectroscopy. Impedance Spectroscopy: Theory, Experiment, and Applications, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119381860.ch1"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bellio, A., Bianchi, D.M., Gramaglia, M., Loria, A., Nucera, D., Gallina, S., Gili, M., and Decastelli, L. (2016). Aflatoxin M1 in cow\u2019s milk: Method validation for milk sampled in northern Italy. Toxins, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins8030057"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/11\/3602\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:05:47Z","timestamp":1760162747000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/11\/3602"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,21]]},"references-count":133,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6]]}},"alternative-id":["s21113602"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21113602","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,21]]}}}