{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,20]],"date-time":"2026-02-20T07:58:39Z","timestamp":1771574319900,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,25]],"date-time":"2021-05-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1621900800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The development of a 3D-Printed Load Cell (PLC) was studied using a nanocarbon composite strain sensor (NCSS) and a 3D printing process. The miniature load cell was fabricated using a low-cost LCD-based 3D printer with UV resin. The NCSS composed of 0.5 wt% MWCNT\/epoxy was used to create the flexure of PLC. PLC performance was evaluated under a rated load range; its output was equal to the common value of 2 mV\/V. The performance was also evaluated after a calibration in terms of non-linearity, repeatability, and hysteresis, with final results of 2.12%, 1.60%, and 4.42%, respectively. Creep and creep recovery were found to be 1.68 (%FS) and 4.16 (%FS). The relative inferiorities of PLC seem to originate from the inherent hyper-elastic characteristics of polymer sensors. The 3D PLC developed may be a promising solution for the OEM\/design-in load cell market and may also result in the development of a novel 3D-printed sensor.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21113675","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,25]],"date-time":"2021-05-25T22:02:23Z","timestamp":1621980143000},"page":"3675","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["3D-Printed Load Cell Using Nanocarbon Composite Strain Sensor"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Kwan-Young","family":"Joung","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Korea"},{"name":"Department of Innovative Smart Manufacturing R&D, Korea Institute of Industrial Technology, Cheonan 31056, Korea"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5693-3246","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sung-Yong","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Design Engineering, Pukyong National University, Busan 48513, Korea"}]},{"given":"Inpil","family":"Kang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Design Engineering, Pukyong National University, Busan 48513, Korea"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2393-1428","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sung-Ho","family":"Cho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Korea"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"PCB Load & Torque Division (2014). Load Cell Handbook: A Technical Overview and Selection Guide, PCB. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2021, March 15). OMEGA. Available online: https:\/\/kr.omega.com\/prodinfo\/loadcells.Html."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1088\/0950-7671\/41\/7\/301","article-title":"Recent Advances in Strain Gauges","volume":"41","author":"Higson","year":"1964","journal-title":"J. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8577","DOI":"10.3390\/s130708577","article-title":"Gauge Factor and Stretchability of Silicon-on-Polymer Strain Gauges","volume":"13","author":"Yang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19048","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.7b04927","article-title":"Engineering and Characterization of Bacterial Nanocellulose Films as Low Cost and Flexible Sensor Material","volume":"9","author":"Mangayil","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1901924","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201901924","article-title":"Advanced Soft Materials, Sensor Integrations, and Applications of Wearable Flexible Hybrid Electronics in Healthcare, Energy, and Environment","volume":"32","author":"Lim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11225","DOI":"10.1039\/D0RA00327A","article-title":"A Highly Stretchable Strain Sensor Based on CNT\/graphene\/Fullerene-SEBS","volume":"10","author":"Pan","year":"2020","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ali, A., Ali, F., Irfan, M., Muhammad, F., Glowacz, A., Antonino-Daviu, J.A., Caesarendra, W., and Qamar, S. (2020). Mechanical Pressure Characterization of CNT-Graphene Composite Material. Micromachines, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi11111000"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2001235","DOI":"10.1002\/aelm.202001235","article-title":"High Sensitivity Polyurethane-Based Fiber Strain Sensor with Porous Structure via Incorporation of Bacterial Cellulose Nanofibers","volume":"7","author":"Sheng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Electron. Mater."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/15\/3\/009","article-title":"A Carbon Nanotube Strain Sensor for Structural Health Monitoring","volume":"15","author":"Kang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10753","DOI":"10.3390\/s150510753","article-title":"Carbon Fiber Epoxy Composites for Both Strengthening and Health Monitoring of Structures","volume":"15","author":"Salvado","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2012.08.029","article-title":"Alamusi Ultrasensitive Strain Sensors Made from Metal-Coated Carbon nanofiller\/Epoxy Composites","volume":"51","author":"Hu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2016.03.098","article-title":"Piezoresistive Response of Spray-Printed Carbon nanotube\/Poly(vinylidene Fluoride) Composites","volume":"96","author":"Ferreira","year":"2016","journal-title":"Compos. Part B Eng."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4005","DOI":"10.1166\/jnn.2020.17588","article-title":"Polypyrrole\/Graphene Quantum Dot Composites as a Sensor Media for Epinephrine","volume":"20","author":"Le","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-4484\/19\/05\/055705","article-title":"Strain-Dependent Electrical Resistance of Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotube\/Polymer Composite Films","volume":"19","author":"Park","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nanotechnology"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223114","DOI":"10.1063\/1.2819690","article-title":"Dominant Role of Tunneling Resistance in the Electrical Conductivity of Carbon nanotube\u2013based Composites","volume":"91","author":"Li","year":"2007","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"1","article-title":"Modeling the Electrical Resistivity of Polymer Composites with Segregated Structures","volume":"10","author":"Park","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choi, G., Lee, J.W., Cha, J.Y., Kim, Y.-J., Choi, Y.-S., Schulz, M.J., Moon, C.K., Lim, K.T., Kim, S.Y., and Kang, I. (2016). A Spray-On Carbon Nanotube Artificial Neuron Strain Sensor for Composite Structural Health Monitoring. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16081171"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"035025","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-665X\/aafbd9","article-title":"Impact Paint Sensor Based on Polymer\/Multi-Dimension Carbon Nano Isotopes Composites","volume":"28","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesa.2015.05.014","article-title":"Conductive 3D Microstructures by Direct 3D Printing of polymer\/Carbon Nanotube Nanocomposites via Liquid Deposition Modeling","volume":"76","author":"Giovanni","year":"2015","journal-title":"Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.synthmet.2016.03.014","article-title":"Fabrication of Highly Conductive Graphene Flexible Circuits by 3D Printing","volume":"217","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Synth. Met."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"38","article-title":"3-D Printing of Multifunctional Carbon Nanotube Yarn Reinforced Components","volume":"12","author":"John","year":"2016","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"73","article-title":"Additive-Manufactured (3D-Printed) Electrochemical Sensors: A Critical Review","volume":"29","author":"Rafael","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2017.07.020","article-title":"3D printing of multiaxial force sensors using carbon nanotube (CNT)\/thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) filaments","volume":"263","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Christ, J.F., Aliheidari, N., P\u00f6tschke, P., and Ameli, A. (2018). Bidirectional and Stretchable Piezoresistive Sensors Enabled by Multimaterial 3D Printing of Carbon Nanotube\/Thermoplastic Polyurethane Nanocomposites. Polymers, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym11010011"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"084001","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-665X\/ab1fa9","article-title":"A 3D-Printed Stretchable Strain Sensor for Wind Sensing","volume":"28","author":"Tsuruta","year":"2019","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.precisioneng.2019.11.019","article-title":"Additive Manufacturing and Characterization of a Load Cell with Embedded Strain Gauges","volume":"62","author":"Stano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Precis. Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6971","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2020.2976508","article-title":"3D-Printed Strain-Gauge Micro Force Sensors","volume":"20","author":"Qu","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"187","article-title":"A Study on the Development of a Novel Pressure Sensor Based on Nano Carbon Piezoresistive Composite by Using 3D Printing","volume":"41","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trans. Korean Soc. Mech. Eng. A"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2021, May 23). 4thwave. Available online: https:\/\/4thwave3d.com\/product\/Resin\/."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1021","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.200600061","article-title":"Inkjet Printing of Electrically Conductive Patterns of Carbon Nanotubes","volume":"2","author":"Kordas","year":"2006","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2017.06.011","article-title":"3D Printed Highly Elastic Strain Sensors of Multiwalled Carbon Nano-tube\/Thermoplastic Polyurethane Nanocomposites","volume":"131","author":"Christ","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8205","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2018.2884204","article-title":"Model-Based Compensation of Rate-Dependent Hysteresis in a Piezoresistive Strain Sensor","volume":"66","author":"Oliveri","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1250136","DOI":"10.1142\/S0217984912501369","article-title":"Temperature Dependence of Electrical Resistance of Individual Carbon Nanotubes and Carbon Nanotubes Network","volume":"26","author":"Dehghani","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mod. Phys. Lett. B"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"688","DOI":"10.1109\/TNANO.2010.2068307","article-title":"Epoxy\/MWCNT Composite as Temperature Sensor and Electrical Heating Element","volume":"10","author":"Neitzert","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"International Organization of Legal Metrology (2000). Metrological Regulation for Load Cells, OIML."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/11\/3675\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:07:44Z","timestamp":1760162864000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/11\/3675"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,25]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6]]}},"alternative-id":["s21113675"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21113675","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,25]]}}}