{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T19:59:43Z","timestamp":1783627183160,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":196,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,9]],"date-time":"2021-06-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1623196800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The use of heart rate variability (HRV) in research has been greatly popularized over the past decades due to the ease and affordability of HRV collection, coupled with its clinical relevance and significant relationships with psychophysiological constructs and psychopathological disorders. Despite the wide use of electrocardiograms (ECG) in research and advancements in sensor technology, the analytical approach and steps applied to obtain HRV measures can be seen as complex. Thus, this poses a challenge to users who may not have the adequate background knowledge to obtain the HRV indices reliably. To maximize the impact of HRV-related research and its reproducibility, parallel advances in users\u2019 understanding of the indices and the standardization of analysis pipelines in its utility will be crucial. This paper addresses this gap and aims to provide an overview of the most up-to-date and commonly used HRV indices, as well as common research areas in which these indices have proven to be very useful, particularly in psychology. In addition, we also provide a step-by-step guide on how to perform HRV analysis using an integrative neurophysiological toolkit, NeuroKit2.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21123998","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,9]],"date-time":"2021-06-09T22:18:29Z","timestamp":1623277109000},"page":"3998","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":368,"title":["Heart Rate Variability in Psychology: A Review of HRV Indices and an Analysis Tutorial"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6392-6703","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tam","family":"Pham","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Social Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639818, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4429-4082","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zen Juen","family":"Lau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Social Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639818, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1540-5516","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S. H. Annabel","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Social Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639818, Singapore"},{"name":"Centre for Research and Development in Learning, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637460, Singapore"},{"name":"Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 636921, Singapore"},{"name":"National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637616, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5375-9967","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dominique","family":"Makowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Social Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639818, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Selye, H. (1956). The Stress of Life, Mc Gran-Hill Book Company Inc."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/0008-6363(96)00116-2","article-title":"Heart Rate Variability and Its Sympatho-Vagal Modulation","volume":"32","author":"Lombardi","year":"1996","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpsycho.2007.07.004","article-title":"Cardiac defense: From attention to action","volume":"66","author":"Vila","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Psychophysiol."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Obrist, P.A. (2012). Cardiovascular Psychophysiology: A Perspective, Springer Science & Business Media."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.7453\/gahmj.2014.073","article-title":"Heart Rate Variability: New Perspectives on Physiological Mechanisms, Assessment of Self-regulatory Capacity, and Health Risk","volume":"4","author":"Mccraty","year":"2015","journal-title":"Glob. Adv. Heal. Med."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2850","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.94.11.2850","article-title":"Impact of Reduced Heart Rate Variability on Risk for Cardiac Events: The Framingham Heart Study","volume":"94","author":"Tsuji","year":"1996","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfm634","article-title":"Heart rate variability (HRV) in kidney failure: Measurement and consequences of reduced HRV","volume":"23","author":"Ranpuria","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpsycho.2010.04.006","article-title":"Depression, heart rate related variables and cardiovascular disease","volume":"78","author":"Taylor","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Psychophysiol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2009.09.543","article-title":"The relationship of autonomic imbalance, heart rate variability and cardiovascular disease risk factors","volume":"141","author":"Thayer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2019.00053","article-title":"The Investigation of the Cardiovascular and Sudomotor Autonomic Nervous System\u2014A Review","volume":"10","author":"Ziemssen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-0327(96)00042-0","article-title":"\u2019T Anxiety and autonomic regulation in major depressive disorder: An exploratory study","volume":"40","author":"Tulen","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3999(99)00085-9","article-title":"Severe depression is associated with markedly reduced heart rate variability in patients with stable coronary heart disease","volume":"48","author":"Stein","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Psychosom. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-1781(02)00225-1","article-title":"Relationship Between Major Depression and Heart Rate Variability.: Clinical Consequences and Implications for Antidepressive Treatment","volume":"113","author":"Agelink","year":"2002","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2009.12.012","article-title":"Impact of Depression and Antidepressant Treatment on Heart Rate Variability: A Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"67","author":"Kemp","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kemp, A.H., Quintana, D.S., Felmingham, K.L., Matthews, S., and Jelinek, H.F. (2012). Depression, Comorbid Anxiety Disorders, and Heart Rate Variability in Physically Healthy, Unmedicated Patients: Implications for Cardiovascular Risk. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0030777"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2013.06.009","article-title":"Heart Rate Variability and Its Neural Correlates During Emotional Face Processing in Social Anxiety Disorder","volume":"94","author":"Gaebler","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2014.00080","article-title":"Anxiety Disorders Are Associated with Reduced Heart Rate Variability: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"5","author":"Chalmers","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"1043","article-title":"Standards of Measurement, Physiological Interpretation and Clinical Use. Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and the North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology","volume":"93","author":"Force","year":"1996","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1040","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2014.01040","article-title":"A healthy heart is not a metronome: An integrative review of the heart\u2019s anatomy and heart rate variability","volume":"5","author":"Shaffer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2017.00258","article-title":"An Overview of Heart Rate Variability Metrics and Norms","volume":"5","author":"Shaffer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.1997.tb02140.x","article-title":"Heart rate variability: Origins, methods, and interpretive caveats","volume":"34","author":"Berntson","year":"1997","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2013.06.008","article-title":"Combinations of Resting RSA and RSA Reactivity Impact Maladaptive Mood Repair and Depression Symptoms","volume":"94","author":"Yaroslavsky","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2011.11.009","article-title":"Statistical Strategies to Quantify Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia: Are Commonly Used Metrics Equivalent?","volume":"89","author":"Lewis","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9149(89)90436-0","article-title":"Comparison of Time-and Frequency Domain-Based Measures of Cardiac Parasympathetic Activity in Holter Recordings After Myocardial Infarction","volume":"64","author":"Albrecht","year":"1989","journal-title":"Am. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9149(97)89199-0","article-title":"Short-and Long-Term Assessment of Heart Rate Variability for Risk Stratification After Acute Myocardial Infarction","volume":"77","author":"Fei","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1510","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.98.15.1510","article-title":"Prospective Study of Heart Rate Variability and Mortality in Chronic Heart Failure: Results of the United Kingdom Heart Failure Evaluation and Assessment of Risk Trial (UK-Heart)","volume":"98","author":"Nolan","year":"1998","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1542-474X.2005.10101.x","article-title":"Heart Rate Variability: Measurement and Clinical Utility","volume":"10","author":"Kleiger","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ann. Noninvasive Electrocardiol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelectrocard.2004.04.004","article-title":"Repeatability of Heart Rate Variability Measures","volume":"37","author":"Schroeder","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Electrocardiol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1007\/s11517-006-0097-2","article-title":"Reliability and Accuracy of Heart Rate Variability Metrics Versus ECG Segment Duration","volume":"44","author":"McNames","year":"2006","journal-title":"Med. Biol. Eng. Comput."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salahuddin, L., Cho, J., Jeong, M.G., and Kim, D. (2007, January 23\u201326). Ultra short term analysis of heart rate variability for monitoring mental stress in mobile settings. Proceedings of the 29th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, Lyon, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEMBS.2007.4353378"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1542-474X.2011.00417.x","article-title":"Reliability of Ultra-Short ECG Indices for Heart Rate Variability","volume":"16","author":"Nussinovitch","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ann. Noninvasive Electrocardiol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Munoz, M.L., van Roon, A., Riese, H., Thio, C., Oostenbroek, E., Westrik, I., de Geus, E.J., Gansevoort, R., Lefrandt, J., and Nolte, I.M. (2015). Validity of (Ultra-) Short Recordings for Heart Rate Variability Measurements. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0138921"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1089\/tmj.2014.0104","article-title":"Reliability of Ultra-Short-Term Analysis as a Surrogate of Standard 5-Min Analysis of Heart Rate Variability","volume":"21","author":"Baek","year":"2015","journal-title":"Telemed. e-Health"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12911-019-0742-y","article-title":"Ultra-short term HRV features as surrogates of short term HRV: A case study on mental stress detection in real life","volume":"19","author":"Castaldo","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMC Med. Inform. Decis. Mak."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"814","article-title":"ELECTRONIC EVALUATION OF THE FETAL HEART RATE. VIII. PATTERNS PRECEDING FETAL DEATH, FURTHER OBSERVATIONS","volume":"87","author":"Hon","year":"1963","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1126\/science.6166045","article-title":"Power Spectrum Analysis of Heart Rate Fluctuation: A Quantitative Probe of Beat-to-Beat Cardiovascular Control","volume":"213","author":"Akselrod","year":"1981","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1109\/5.30749","article-title":"Time-frequency distributions-a review","volume":"Volume 77","author":"Cohen","year":"1989","journal-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1987.tb48733.x","article-title":"Applications of Nonlinear Dynamics to Clinical Cardiology","volume":"504","author":"Goldberger","year":"1987","journal-title":"Ann. New York Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1419","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-8703(90)90258-Y","article-title":"Fascinating rhythm: A primer on chaos theory and its application to cardiology","volume":"120","author":"Denton","year":"1990","journal-title":"Am. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2142","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.93.12.2142","article-title":"Power Law Behavior of RR-Interval Variability in Healthy Middle-Aged Persons, Patients with Recent Acute Myocardial Infarction, and Patients with Heart Transplants","volume":"93","author":"Steinman","year":"1996","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1283","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9149(96)00193-2","article-title":"Linear and nonlinear dynamics of heart rate variability after acute myocardial infarction with normal and reduced left ventricular ejection fraction","volume":"77","author":"Lombardi","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelectrocard.2003.09.021","article-title":"Measurement of heart rate variability by methods based on nonlinear dynamics","volume":"36","author":"Huikuri","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Electrocardiol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1063\/1.2808299","article-title":"Fractal Physiology","volume":"48","author":"Bassingthwaighte","year":"1995","journal-title":"Phys. Today"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1031","DOI":"10.1007\/s11517-006-0119-0","article-title":"Heart rate variability: A review","volume":"44","author":"Acharya","year":"2006","journal-title":"Med Biol. Eng. Comput."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"169","article-title":"Coefficient of Variation","volume":"1","author":"Abdi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Encycl. Res. Des."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-925X-9-39","article-title":"Sleep stage and obstructive apneaic epoch classification using single-lead ECG","volume":"9","author":"Yetkin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biomed. Eng. Online"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almazaydeh, L., Elleithy, K., and Faezipour, M. (September, January 28). Obstructive sleep apnea detection using SVM-based classification of ECG signal features. Proceedings of the 2012 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, San Diego, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC.2012.6347100"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1002\/mus.25573","article-title":"Reminder: RMSSD and SD1 are identical heart rate variability metrics","volume":"56","author":"Ciccone","year":"2017","journal-title":"Muscle Nerve"},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"535","article-title":"Ultra-Short-Term Heart Rate Variability Indexes at Rest and Post-Exercise in Athletes: Evaluating the Agreement with Accepted Recommendations","volume":"13","author":"Esco","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02441992","article-title":"Influence of the recognition artefact in automatic analysis of long-term electrocardiograms on time-domain measurement of heart rate variability","volume":"31","author":"Malik","year":"1993","journal-title":"Med Biol. Eng. Comput."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.artmed.2010.09.005","article-title":"Electrocardiogram analysis using a combination of statistical, geometric, and nonlinear heart rate variability features","volume":"51","author":"Jovic","year":"2011","journal-title":"Artif. Intell. Med."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"24","article-title":"Time and frequency domain analysis of heart rate variability and their correlations in diabetes mellitus","volume":"4","author":"Seyd","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1255","DOI":"10.1113\/expphysiol.2010.056259","article-title":"Low-frequency power of heart rate variability is not a measure of cardiac sympathetic tone but may be a measure of modulation of cardiac autonomic outflows by baroreflexes","volume":"96","author":"Goldstein","year":"2011","journal-title":"Exp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2013.00026","article-title":"The LF\/HF ratio does not accurately measure cardiac sympatho-vagal balance","volume":"4","author":"Billman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1314","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.163.6.2004175","article-title":"A novel pathophysiologic phenomenon in cachexic patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: The relationship between the circadian rhythm of circulating leptin and the very low-frequency component of heart rate variability","volume":"163","author":"Takabatake","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R1534","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.2001.280.5.R1534","article-title":"Long-term control of renal blood flow: What is the role of the renal nerves?","volume":"280","author":"Barrett","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"5","article-title":"Thermally elicited entertainment of heart rate variability [proceedings]","volume":"270","author":"Coenen","year":"1977","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtherbio.2008.11.008","article-title":"Visualization of body thermoregulation by infrared imaging","volume":"34","author":"Bouzida","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Therm. Biol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Machado, C., Estevez, M., Perez-Nellar, J., and Schiavi, A. (2015). Residual vasomotor activity assessed by heart rate variability in a brain-dead case. BMJ Case Rep., 2015.","DOI":"10.1136\/bcr-2014-205677"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.1088\/0967-3334\/30\/10\/005","article-title":"The effect of missing RR-interval data on heart rate variability analysis in the frequency domain","volume":"30","author":"Kim","year":"2009","journal-title":"Physiol. Meas."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.eurheartj.a014868","article-title":"Heart rate variability: Standards of measurement, physiological interpretation, and clinical use","volume":"17","author":"Malik","year":"1996","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/30.7.913","article-title":"Interpretation of Normalized Spectral Heart Rate Variability Indices In Sleep Research: A Critical Review","volume":"30","author":"Burr","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Cohen, L. (1995). Time-Frequency Analysis, Prentice Hall."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1088\/0967-3334\/21\/2\/303","article-title":"Time-frequency analysis of heart rate variability using short-time Fourier analysis","volume":"21","author":"Elsenbruch","year":"2000","journal-title":"Physiol. Meas."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2008.0188","article-title":"On the quantification of heart rate variability spectral parameters using time\u2013frequency and time-varying methods","volume":"367","author":"Mainardi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2008.0232","article-title":"Methods derived from nonlinear dynamics for analysing heart rate variability","volume":"367","author":"Voss","year":"2008","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Henriques, T., Ribeiro, M., Teixeira, A., Castro, L., Antunes, L., and Costa-Santos, C. (2020). Nonlinear Methods Most Applied to Heart-Rate Time Series: A Review. Entropy, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/e22030309"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1342","DOI":"10.1109\/10.959330","article-title":"Do existing measures of Poincare plot geometry reflect nonlinear features of heart rate variability?","volume":"48","author":"Brennan","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H1873","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00405.2000","article-title":"Poincar\u00e9 plot interpretation using a physiological model of HRV based on a network of oscillators","volume":"283","author":"Brennan","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aat.2012.03.002","article-title":"Poincar\u00e9 plot indexes of heart rate variability detect dynamic autonomic modulation during general anesthesia induction","volume":"50","author":"Hsu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Acta Anaesthesiol. Taiwanica"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"704","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-8703(92)90510-3","article-title":"Patterns of beat-to-beat heart rate variability in advanced heart failure","volume":"123","author":"Woo","year":"1992","journal-title":"Am. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1475-097X.2003.00466.x","article-title":"Poincar\u00e9 plot indexes of heart rate variability capture dynamic adaptations after haemodialysis in chronic renal failure patients","volume":"23","author":"Claudia","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin. Physiol. Funct. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autneu.2013.05.004","article-title":"Poincar\u00e9 plot indexes of heart rate variability: Relationships with other nonlinear variables","volume":"177","author":"Hoshi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Auton. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koichubekov, B., Riklefs, V., Sorokina, M., Korshukov, I., Turgunova, L., Laryushina, Y., Bakirova, R., Muldaeva, G., Bekov, E., and Kultenova, M. (2017). Informative Nature and Nonlinearity of Lagged Poincar\u00e9 Plots Indices in Analysis of Heart Rate Variability. Entropy, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/e19100523"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Delgado-Bonal, A., and Marshak, A. (2019). Approximate Entropy and Sample Entropy: A Comprehensive Tutorial. Entropy, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/e21060541"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123114","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5115506","article-title":"Comparison of methods for the assessment of nonlinearity in short-term heart rate variability under different physiopathological states","volume":"29","author":"Faes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chaos: Interdiscip. J. Nonlinear Sci."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2297","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.88.6.2297","article-title":"Approximate entropy as a measure of system complexity","volume":"88","author":"Pincus","year":"1991","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H2039","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.2000.278.6.H2039","article-title":"Physiological time-series analysis using approximate entropy and sample entropy","volume":"278","author":"Richman","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"068102","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.89.068102","article-title":"Multiscale Entropy Analysis of Complex Physiologic Time Series","volume":"89","author":"Costa","year":"2002","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1900","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2006.889772","article-title":"Use of Sample Entropy Approach to Study Heart Rate Variability in Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome","volume":"54","author":"Sahakian","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physleta.2008.10.049","article-title":"Measuring time series regularity using nonlinear similarity-based sample entropy","volume":"372","author":"Xie","year":"2008","journal-title":"Phys. Lett. A"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physa.2003.08.022","article-title":"Multiscale entropy analysis of human gait dynamics","volume":"330","author":"Costa","year":"2003","journal-title":"Phys. A Stat. Mech. Its Appl."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"021906","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevE.71.021906","article-title":"Multiscale entropy analysis of biological signals","volume":"71","author":"Costa","year":"2005","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. E"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1069","DOI":"10.3390\/e15031069","article-title":"Time Series Analysis Using Composite Multiscale Entropy","volume":"15","author":"Wu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Entropy"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physleta.2014.03.034","article-title":"Analysis of complex time series using refined composite multiscale entropy","volume":"378","author":"Wu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Phys. Lett. A"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-54547-7","article-title":"Alterations in heart-brain interactions under mild stress during a cognitive task are reflected in entropy of heart rate dynamics","volume":"9","author":"Blons","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deschodt-Arsac, V., Blons, E., Gilfriche, P., Spiluttini, B., and Arsac, L.M. (2020). Entropy in Heart Rate Dynamics Reflects How HRV-Biofeedback Training Improves Neurovisceral Complexity during Stress-Cognition Interactions. Entropy, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/e22030317"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2007.897025","article-title":"Characterization of Surface EMG Signal Based on Fuzzy Entropy","volume":"15","author":"Chen","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2012.11.005","article-title":"Analysis of heart rate variability using fuzzy measure entropy","volume":"43","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Comput. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3110","DOI":"10.3390\/e17053110","article-title":"The Multiscale Entropy Algorithm and Its Variants: A Review","volume":"17","year":"2015","journal-title":"Entropy"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castiglioni, P., and Di Rienzo, M. (2008). How the threshold \u201cr\u201d influences approximate entropy analysis of heart-rate variability. Comput. Cardiol., 561\u2013564.","DOI":"10.1109\/CIC.2008.4749103"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.5506\/APhysPolBSupp.5.153","article-title":"Entropy Measures of Heart Rate Variability for Short ECG Datasets in Patients with Congestive Heart Failure","volume":"5","author":"Graff","year":"2012","journal-title":"Acta Phys. Pol. B Proc. Suppl."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.3390\/e17031007","article-title":"Entropy Measures in the Assessment of Heart Rate Variability in Patients with Cardiodepressive Vasovagal Syncope","volume":"17","author":"Graff","year":"2015","journal-title":"Entropy"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2105-15-S6-S2","article-title":"Selection of entropy-measure parameters for knowledge discovery in heart rate variability data","volume":"15","author":"Mayer","year":"2014","journal-title":"BMC Bioinform."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-4825(88)90041-8","article-title":"Fractals and the analysis of waveforms","volume":"18","author":"Katz","year":"1988","journal-title":"Comput. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-2789(90)90039-R","article-title":"Relationship between the fractal dimension and the power law index for a time series: A numerical investigation","volume":"46","author":"Higuchi","year":"1990","journal-title":"Phys. D Nonlinear Phenom."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1063\/1.166141","article-title":"Quantification of scaling exponents and crossover phenomena in nonstationary heartbeat time series","volume":"5","author":"Peng","year":"1995","journal-title":"Chaos Interdiscip. J. Nonlinear Sci."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1143","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2003.817636","article-title":"Comparison of Detrended Fluctuation Analysis and Spectral Analysis for Heart Rate Variability in Sleep and Sleep Apnea","volume":"50","author":"Penzel","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1562051","article-title":"Interpretation of heart rate variability via detrended fluctuation analysis and alpha beta filter","volume":"13","author":"Echeverria","year":"2003","journal-title":"Chaos Interdiscip. J. Nonlinear Sci."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2005.11.014","article-title":"Toward Understanding Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia: Relations to Cardiac Vagal Tone, Evolution and Biobehavioral Functions","volume":"74","author":"Grossman","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_101","unstructured":"Cacioppo, J.T., and Tassinary, L.G. (1990). The Analysis of Periodic Processes in Psychophysiological Research. Principles of Psychophysiology: Physical, Social, and Inferential Elements, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"702","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.1990.tb03198.x","article-title":"A Comparison of Three Quantification Methods for Estimation of Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia","volume":"27","author":"Grossman","year":"1990","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1975.39.5.801","article-title":"Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia: Noninvasive Measure of Parasympathetic Cardiac Control","volume":"39","author":"Katona","year":"1975","journal-title":"Eur. J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-0327(00)00338-4","article-title":"A model of neurovisceral integration in emotion regulation and dysregulation","volume":"61","author":"Thayer","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2008.08.004","article-title":"Claude bernard and the heart\u2013brain connection: Further elaboration of a model of neurovisceral integration","volume":"33","author":"Thayer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9450.00277","article-title":"Stop that! Inhibition, sensitization, and their neurovisceral concomitants","volume":"43","author":"Thayer","year":"2002","journal-title":"Scand. J. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1050","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2005.04.014","article-title":"Psychosomatics and psychopathology: Looking up and down from the brain","volume":"30","author":"Thayer","year":"2005","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2005.08.009","article-title":"An autonomic flexibility\u2014Neurovisceral integration model of anxiety and cardiac vagal tone","volume":"74","author":"Friedman","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1037\/h0027921","article-title":"Respiratory and heart rate components of attention","volume":"81","author":"Porges","year":"1969","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.1991.tb03385.x","article-title":"Heart Rate Variability During Attention Phases in Young Infants","volume":"28","author":"Richards","year":"1991","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-8760(03)00073-4","article-title":"Vagal influence on working memory and attention","volume":"48","author":"Hansen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Psychophysiol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1080\/10615800802272251","article-title":"Relationship between heart rate variability and cognitive function during threat of shock","volume":"22","author":"Hansen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anxiety Stress Coping"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/S0887-6185(02)00178-0","article-title":"Attentional and physiological characteristics of patients with dental anxiety","volume":"17","author":"Johnsen","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Anxiety Disord."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2011.00278","article-title":"Individual differences in heart rate variability predict the degree of slowing during response inhibition and initiation in the presence of emotional stimuli","volume":"2","author":"Krypotos","year":"2011","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1292","DOI":"10.1037\/a0028528","article-title":"Cardiac Vagal Tone Predicts Inhibited Attention to Fearful Faces","volume":"12","author":"Park","year":"2012","journal-title":"Emotion"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2017.08.030","article-title":"High Vagally Mediated Resting-State Heart Rate Variability Is Associated with Superior Action Cascading","volume":"106","author":"Colzato","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.3758\/s13415-018-0600-x","article-title":"Variable heart rate and a flexible mind: Higher resting-state heart rate variability predicts better task-switching","volume":"18","author":"Colzato","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.29.4.655","article-title":"Behavioral and physiological correlates of children\u2019s reactions to others in distress","volume":"29","author":"Fabes","year":"1993","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1107","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.73.5.1107","article-title":"Regulatory control and adults\u2019 stress-related responses to daily life events","volume":"73","author":"Fabes","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Personal. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2010.06.015","article-title":"The impact of heart rate variability on subjective well-being is mediated by emotion regulation","volume":"49","author":"Geisler","year":"2010","journal-title":"Personal. Individ. Differ."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2011.11.009","article-title":"A meta-analysis of heart rate variability and neuroimaging studies: Implications for heart rate variability as a marker of stress and health","volume":"36","author":"Thayer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1037\/1089-2680.10.3.229","article-title":"Heart Rate Variability as an Index of Regulated Emotional Responding","volume":"10","author":"Appelhans","year":"2006","journal-title":"Rev. Gen. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1111\/psyp.12186","article-title":"When Tonic Cardiac Vagal Tone Predicts Changes in Phasic Vagal Tone: The Role of Fear and Perceptual Load","volume":"51","author":"Park","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3223(95)00136-0","article-title":"Autonomic characteristics of generalized anxiety disorder and worry","volume":"39","author":"Thayer","year":"1996","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2014.11.017","article-title":"Dysphoria is associated with reduced cardiac vagal withdrawal during the imagery of pleasant scripts: Evidence for the positive attenuation hypothesis","volume":"106","author":"Benvenuti","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1037\/a0020626","article-title":"Developmental trajectories of delinquency symptoms in childhood: The role of marital conflict and autonomic nervous system activity","volume":"120","author":"Hinnant","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.2005.00289.x","article-title":"Vagal Withdrawal to a Sad Film Predicts Subsequent Recovery from Depression","volume":"42","author":"Rottenberg","year":"2005","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-009-1341-x","article-title":"Low vagal tone is associated with impaired post stress recovery of cardiovascular, endocrine, and immune markers","volume":"109","author":"Weber","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2005.08.008","article-title":"Polyvagal Theory and developmental psychopathology: Emotion dysregulation and conduct problems from preschool to adolescence","volume":"74","author":"Beauchaine","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_130","first-page":"786","article-title":"The Time Line of Threat Processing and Vagal Withdrawal in Response to a Self-Threatening Stressor in Cognitive Avoidant Copers: Evidence for Vigilance-Avoidance Theory","volume":"47","author":"Schwerdtfeger","year":"2010","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2007.01888.x","article-title":"Heart rate variability reflects self-regulatory strength, effort, and fatigue","volume":"18","author":"Segerstrom","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.2006.00467.x","article-title":"Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia, Emotion, and Emotion Regulation During Social Interaction","volume":"43","author":"Butler","year":"2006","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2014.05.003","article-title":"Is the ability to keep your mind sharp under pressure reflected in your heart? Evidence for the neurophysiological bases of decision reinvestment","volume":"100","author":"Laborde","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2014.12.003","article-title":"The contribution of coping-related variables and heart rate variability to visual search performance under pressure","volume":"139","author":"Laborde","year":"2015","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2017.00213","article-title":"Heart rate variability and cardiac vagal tone in psychophysiological research\u2013recommendations for experiment planning, data analysis, and data reporting","volume":"8","author":"Laborde","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579401002012","article-title":"Vagal tone, development, and Gray\u2019s motivational theory: Toward an integrated model of autonomic nervous system functioning in psychopathology","volume":"13","author":"Beauchaine","year":"2001","journal-title":"Dev. Psychopathol."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1088\/0967-3334\/31\/3\/003","article-title":"The altered complexity of cardiovascular regulation in depressed patients","volume":"31","author":"Schulz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Physiol. Meas."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e27","DOI":"10.1038\/tp.2011.23","article-title":"Decreased neuroautonomic complexity in men during an acute major depressive episode: Analysis of heart rate dynamics","volume":"1","author":"Leistedt","year":"2011","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2016.04.013","article-title":"Depression and resting state heart rate variability in children and adolescents\u2014A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"46","author":"Koenig","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-5273(97)00088-0","article-title":"Abnormal passive head-up tilt test in subjects with symptoms of anxiety power spectral analysis study of heart rate and blood pressure","volume":"60","author":"Piccirillo","year":"1997","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_141","first-page":"4","article-title":"Perspectives on the relationship between cardiovascular disease and affective disorder","volume":"51","author":"Dalack","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3223(94)00130-U","article-title":"Altered heart rate variability in panic disorder patients","volume":"37","author":"Klein","year":"1995","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1190","DOI":"10.7205\/MILMED.172.11.1190","article-title":"Characteristics of Heart Rate Variability in War Veterans with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder after Myocardial Infarction","volume":"172","author":"Lakusic","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mil. Med."},{"key":"ref_144","first-page":"101","article-title":"Panic disorder, autonomic nervous system and dissociation\u2014Changes during therapy","volume":"32","author":"Prasko","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuroendocr. Lett."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2018.00735","article-title":"Heart Rate Variability as Indicator of Clinical State in Depression","volume":"9","author":"Hartmann","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dimitriev, D.A., Saperova, E.V., and Dimitriev, A. (2016). State Anxiety and Nonlinear Dynamics of Heart Rate Variability in Students. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0146131"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3111","DOI":"10.2147\/NDT.S121533","article-title":"Diminished autonomic neurocardiac function in patients with generalized anxiety disorder","volume":"12","author":"Kim","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1399-5618.2003.00027.x","article-title":"Impaired heart rate variability in euthymic bipolar patients","volume":"5","author":"Cohen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Bipolar Disord."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2009.07.011","article-title":"Heart rate variability in bipolar mania and schizophrenia","volume":"44","author":"Henry","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1440-1819.2012.02335.x","article-title":"Heart rate variability in the subsyndromal depressive phase of bipolar disorder","volume":"66","author":"Lee","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1111\/pcn.12178","article-title":"Heart rate variability in unmedicated patients with bipolar disorder in the manic phase","volume":"68","author":"Chang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1136\/eb-2017-102760","article-title":"Heart rate variability in bipolar disorder and borderline personality disorder: A clinical review","volume":"21","author":"Carr","year":"2017","journal-title":"Evid. Based Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2006.04.014","article-title":"Psychophysiological ambulatory assessment of affective dysregulation in borderline personality disorder","volume":"150","author":"Welch","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandc.2009.07.014","article-title":"Autonomic impairment in Borderline Personality Disorder: A laboratory investigation","volume":"71","author":"Weinberg","year":"2009","journal-title":"Brain Cogn."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2004.12.007","article-title":"Loss of efferent vagal activity in acute schizophrenia","volume":"39","author":"Letzsch","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_156","first-page":"393","article-title":"Cardiac risk and schizophrenia","volume":"30","author":"Jindal","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Psychiatry Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2009","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2007.06.012","article-title":"Non-linear complexity measures of heart rate variability in acute schizophrenia","volume":"118","author":"Boettger","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2009.05.004","article-title":"Differential pattern of heart rate variability in patients with schizophrenia","volume":"33","author":"Chang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Prog. Neuro-Psychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-8986.00072","article-title":"Heart rate variability in acute psychosis","volume":"40","author":"Tarvainen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Psychophysiol."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-8760(98)00047-6","article-title":"The influence of psychotic states on the autonomic nervous system in schizophrenia","volume":"31","author":"Toichi","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. J. Psychophysiol."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1097\/PSY.0b013e318219e64e","article-title":"Major Depressive Disorder, Anxiety Disorders, and Cardiac Biomarkers in Subjects at High Risk of Obstructive Sleep Apnea","volume":"73","author":"Einvik","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychosom. Med."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1038\/nrendo.2012.189","article-title":"The vagus nerve and the inflammatory reflex\u2014Linking immunity and metabolism","volume":"8","author":"Pavlov","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.9758\/cpn.2013.11.3.137","article-title":"Comparative Study of Heart Rate Variability in Patients with Schizophrenia, Bipolar Disorder, Post-traumatic Stress Disorder, or Major Depressive Disorder","volume":"11","author":"Moon","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Psychopharmacol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_164","first-page":"1","article-title":"Heart Rate Variability Predicts Treatment Outcome in Major Depression","volume":"2","author":"Hage","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Psychiatry Brain Sci."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2018.05.068","article-title":"Changes in heart rate variability in first-episode drug-na\u00efve adolescents with major depressive disorder: A 12-week prospective study","volume":"238","author":"Park","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2006.06.009","article-title":"The polyvagal perspective","volume":"74","author":"Porges","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_167","first-page":"354","article-title":"The coherent heart heart-brain interactions, psychophysiological coherence, and the emergence of system-wide order","volume":"5","author":"McCraty","year":"2009","journal-title":"Integral Rev. A Transdiscipl. Transcult. J. N. Thought Res. Prax."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1090","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2014.01090","article-title":"Cardiac coherence, self-regulation, autonomic stability, and psychosocial well-being","volume":"5","author":"McCraty","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1007\/s10484-006-9009-3","article-title":"Characteristics of Resonance in Heart Rate Variability Stimulated by Biofeedback","volume":"31","author":"Vaschillo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Psychophysiol. Biofeedback"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.5298\/1081-5937-41.3.08","article-title":"Protocol for Heart Rate Variability Biofeedback Training","volume":"41","author":"Lehrer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biofeedback"},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1014587304314","article-title":"Heart Rate Variability Biofeedback as a Method for Assessing Baroreflex Function: A Preliminary Study of Resonance in the Cardiovascular System","volume":"27","author":"Vaschillo","year":"2002","journal-title":"Appl. Psychophysiol. Biofeedback"},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"796","DOI":"10.1097\/01.PSY.0000089200.81962.19","article-title":"Heart Rate Variability Biofeedback Increases Baroreflex Gain and Peak Expiratory Flow","volume":"65","author":"Lehrer","year":"2003","journal-title":"Psychosom. Med."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1007\/s10484-011-9147-0","article-title":"Effects of Heart Rate Variability Biofeedback in Subjects with Stress-Related Chronic Neck Pain: A Pilot Study","volume":"36","author":"Hallman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Psychophysiol. Biofeedback"},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1007\/s10484-011-9151-4","article-title":"Exploring the Effectiveness of a Computer-Based Heart Rate Variability Biofeedback Program in Reducing Anxiety in College Students","volume":"36","author":"Henriques","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Psychophysiol. Biofeedback"},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2578","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291717001003","article-title":"The effect of heart rate variability biofeedback training on stress and anxiety: A meta-analysis","volume":"47","author":"Goessl","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1007\/s10484-006-9029-z","article-title":"Preliminary Results of an Open Label Study of Heart Rate Variability Biofeedback for the Treatment of Major Depression","volume":"32","author":"Karavidas","year":"2007","journal-title":"Appl. Psychophysiol. Biofeedback"},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1007\/s10484-008-9064-z","article-title":"A Pilot Study on the Effects of Heart Rate Variability Biofeedback in Patients with Depression and in Healthy Subjects","volume":"33","author":"Siepmann","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Psychophysiol. Biofeedback"},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpsycho.2018.01.001","article-title":"Adding HRV biofeedback to psychotherapy increases heart rate variability and improves the treatment of major depressive disorder","volume":"131","author":"Caldwell","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Psychophysiol."},{"key":"ref_179","first-page":"52","article-title":"Cardiac coherence and posttraumatic stress disorder in combat veterans","volume":"16","author":"Ginsberg","year":"2010","journal-title":"Altern. Ther. Health Med."},{"key":"ref_180","first-page":"34","article-title":"Coherence training in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: Cognitive functions and behavioral changes","volume":"16","author":"Lloyd","year":"2010","journal-title":"Altern. Ther. Health Med."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2014.00756","article-title":"Heart rate variability biofeedback: How and why does it work?","volume":"5","author":"Lehrer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Makowski, D., Pham, T., Lau, Z.J., Brammer, J.C., Lespinasse, F., Pham, H., Sch\u00f6lzel, C., and Chen, S.H.A. (2021). NeuroKit2: A Python toolbox for neurophysiological signal processing. Behav. Res. Methods, 1\u20138.","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/eyd62"},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2019.09.015","article-title":"HeartPy: A novel heart rate algorithm for the analysis of noisy signals","volume":"66","author":"Farah","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_184","unstructured":"Gomes, P., Margaritoff, P., and Silva, H. (2019, January 3\u20136). pyHRV: Development and evaluation of an open-source python toolbox for heart rate variability (HRV). Proceedings of the Int\u2019l Conference on Electrical, Electronic and Computing Engineering (IcETRAN), Srebrno Jezero, Serbia."},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1867","DOI":"10.21105\/joss.01867","article-title":"HRV: A Pythonic package for Heart Rate Variability Analysis","volume":"5","author":"Bartels","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Open Source Softw."},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmpb.2013.07.024","article-title":"Kubios HRV\u2013heart rate variability analysis software","volume":"113","author":"Tarvainen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Comput. Methods Programs Biomed."},{"key":"ref_187","first-page":"S282","article-title":"The breathing effect of the LF\/HF ratio in the heart rate variability measurements of athletes","volume":"14","author":"Saboul","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Sport Sci."},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1341","DOI":"10.1093\/europace\/euv015","article-title":"Advances in heart rate variability signal analysis: Joint position statement by the e-Cardiology ESC Working Group and the European Heart Rhythm Association co-endorsed by the Asia Pacific Heart Rhythm Society","volume":"17","author":"Sassi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Europace"},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bjpt.2019.02.006","article-title":"Heart rate variability: Are you using it properly? Standardisation checklist of procedures","volume":"24","author":"Catai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Braz. J. Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1080\/07853890.2016.1226512","article-title":"Heart rate, heart rate variability and inflammatory biomarkers among young and healthy adults","volume":"49","author":"Aeschbacher","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Med."},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1016\/S0735-1097(97)00554-8","article-title":"Twenty-Four Hour Time Domain Heart Rate Variability and Heart Rate: Relations to Age and Gender Over Nine Decades","volume":"31","author":"Umetani","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1407","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-8159.2010.02841.x","article-title":"A Quantitative Systematic Review of Normal Values for Short-Term Heart Rate Variability in Healthy Adults","volume":"33","author":"Nunan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pacing Clin. Electrophysiol."},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13052","DOI":"10.1111\/psyp.13052","article-title":"Reference values for short-term resting-state heart rate variability in healthy adults: Results from the Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Adult Health-ELSA-Brasil study","volume":"55","author":"Dantas","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1495","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2018.01495","article-title":"Normative values for heart rate variability parameters in school-aged children: Simple approach considering differences in average heart rate","volume":"9","author":"Sacha","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2016.02.006","article-title":"Reference values for time- and frequency-domain heart rate variability measures","volume":"13","author":"Sammito","year":"2016","journal-title":"Heart Rhythm."},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2018.00424","article-title":"Normal Values of Corrected Heart-Rate Variability in 10-Second Electrocardiograms for All Ages","volume":"9","author":"Berg","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/12\/3998\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:12:42Z","timestamp":1760163162000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/12\/3998"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,9]]},"references-count":196,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6]]}},"alternative-id":["s21123998"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21123998","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.20944\/preprints202105.0070.v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,9]]}}}