{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,25]],"date-time":"2026-03-25T21:32:53Z","timestamp":1774474373067,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,24]],"date-time":"2021-06-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1624492800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2016YFB0501200"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2016YFB0501200"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Nighttime light remote sensing has unique advantages on reflecting human activities, and thus has been used in many fields including estimating population and GDP, analyzing light pollution and monitoring disasters and conflict. However, the existing nighttime light remote sensors have many limitations because they are subject to one or more shortcomings such as coarse spatial resolution, restricted swath width and lack of multi-spectral data. Therefore, we propose an optical system of imaging spectrometer based on linear variable filter. The imaging principle, optical specifications, optical design, imaging performance analysis and tolerance analysis are illustrated. The optical system with a focal length of 100 mm, F-number 4 and 43\u00b0 field of view in the spectrum range of 400\u20131000 nm is presented, and excellent image quality is achieved. The system can obtain the multi-spectral images of eight bands with a spatial resolution of 21.5 m and a swath width of 320 km at the altitude of 500 km. Compared with the existing nighttime light remote sensors, our system possesses the advantages of high spatial and high spectral resolution, wide spectrum band and wide swath width simultaneously, greatly making up for the shortage of the present systems. The result of tolerance analysis shows our system satisfy the requirements of fabrication and alignment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21134313","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,24]],"date-time":"2021-06-24T11:01:38Z","timestamp":1624532498000},"page":"4313","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Optical Design of Imaging Spectrometer Based on Linear Variable Filter for Nighttime Light Remote Sensing"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5971-7458","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yunqiang","family":"Xie","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Changchun Institute of Optics, Fine Mechanics and Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130033, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Space-Based Dynamic & Rapid Optical Imaging Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130033, China"}]},{"given":"Chunyu","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Changchun Institute of Optics, Fine Mechanics and Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130033, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Space-Based Dynamic & Rapid Optical Imaging Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130033, China"}]},{"given":"Shuai","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Changchun Institute of Optics, Fine Mechanics and Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130033, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Space-Based Dynamic & Rapid Optical Imaging Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130033, China"}]},{"given":"Xinghao","family":"Fan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Changchun Institute of Optics, Fine Mechanics and Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130033, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Space-Based Dynamic & Rapid Optical Imaging Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130033, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2019.111443","article-title":"Remote sensing of nighttime lights: A review and an outlook for the future","volume":"237","author":"Levin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Levin, N., Kyba, C.C.M., and Zhang, Q. (2019). Remote Sensing of Nighttime lights-Beyond DMSP. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11121472"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5855","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2017.1351784","article-title":"Remote sensing of night-time light","volume":"38","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2019.04.019","article-title":"Developing a new cross-sensor calibration model for DMSP-OLS and Suomi-NPP VIIRS night-light imageries","volume":"153","author":"Zheng","year":"2019","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1080\/10095020.2016.1159389","article-title":"Remote sensing of human beings\u2014A perspective from nighttime light","volume":"19","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geo-Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, M., Zhou, Y.Y., Li, X.C., Cao, W.T., He, C.Y., Yu, B.L., Li, X., Elvidge, C.D., Cheng, W.M., and Zhou, C.H. (2019). Applications of Satellite Remote Sensing of Nighttime Light Observations: Advances, Challenges, and Perspectives. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11171971"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(01)00040-5","article-title":"Night-time lights of the world: 1994\u20131995","volume":"56","author":"Elvidge","year":"2001","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"62","article-title":"Why VIIRS data are superior to DMSP for mapping nighttime lights","volume":"35","author":"Elvidge","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Asia-Pac. Adv. Netw."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"114","article-title":"Development of a 2009 Stable Lights Product using DMSP-OLS data","volume":"30","author":"Baugh","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Asia-Pac. Adv. Netw."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(98)00098-4","article-title":"Radiance calibration of DMSP-OLS low-light imaging data of human settlements","volume":"68","author":"Elvidge","year":"1999","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6717","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5126717","article-title":"Illuminating the Capabilities of the Suomi National Polar-Orbiting Partnership (NPP) Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) Day\/Night Band","volume":"5","author":"Miller","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12705","DOI":"10.1002\/2013JD020475","article-title":"Suomi NPP VIIRS day-night band on-orbit performance","volume":"118","author":"Liao","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6964","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2014.2306132","article-title":"Improved VIIRS Day\/Night Band Imagery with Near-Constant Contrast","volume":"52","author":"Liang","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1705","DOI":"10.3390\/rs6021705","article-title":"Evaluating the Ability of NPP-VIIRS Nighttime Light Data to Estimate the Gross Domestic Product and the Electric Power Consumption of China at Multiple Scales: A Comparison with DMSP-OLS Data","volume":"6","author":"Shi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Small, C., Elvidge, C.D., and Baugh, K. (2013, January 21\u201323). Mapping Urban Structure and Spatial Connectivity with VIIRS and OLS Nighttime light Imagery. Proceedings of the Joint Urban Remote Sensing Event 2013, Sao Paulo, Brazil.","DOI":"10.1109\/JURSE.2013.6550707"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-12-00097.1","article-title":"First-Light Imagery from Suomi NPP VIIRS","volume":"94","author":"Hillger","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, X., Zhao, L.X., Li, D.R., and Xu, H.M. (2018). Mapping Urban Extent Using Luojia 1-01 Nighttime Light Imagery. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18113665"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.1080\/2150704X.2019.1577573","article-title":"A preliminary investigation of Luojia-1 night-time light imagery","volume":"10","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2018.06.016","article-title":"A new source of multi-spectral high spatial resolution night-time light imagery-JL1-3B","volume":"215","author":"Zheng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2014.03.019","article-title":"A new source for high spatial resolution night time images\u2014The EROS-B commercial satellite","volume":"149","author":"Levin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.08.008","article-title":"Aerial survey and spatial analysis of sources of light pollution in Berlin, Germany","volume":"126","author":"Kuechly","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2645","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160600981525","article-title":"The Nightsat mission concept","volume":"28","author":"Elvidge","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"894","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.415351","article-title":"Underwater hyperspectral imaging system using a prism-grating-prism structure","volume":"60","author":"Xue","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F8","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.57.0000F8","article-title":"Optics design of a short-wave infrared prism-grating imaging spectrometer","volume":"57","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10449","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.57.010449","article-title":"Design and realization of a wide field of view infrared scanning system with an integrated micro-electromechanical system mirror","volume":"57","author":"Zhu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optcom.2019.124346","article-title":"Design of a compact dual-view endoscope based on a hybrid lens with annularly stitched aspheres","volume":"453","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Opt. Commun."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optcom.2018.03.062","article-title":"Flexible fluidic lens with polymer membrane and multi-flow structure","volume":"421","author":"Liang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Commun."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1364\/JOT.71.000211","article-title":"Calculations for optical systems, using the method of simulation modelling","volume":"71","author":"Grammatin","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Opt. Technol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2451","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.29.002451","article-title":"Apochromatic color correction using liquid lenses","volume":"29","author":"Sigler","year":"1990","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4311","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.25.004311","article-title":"Glass selection for airspaced apochromats using the Buchdal dispersion equation","volume":"25","author":"Sigler","year":"1986","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1597","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.27.001597","article-title":"High performance image mapping spectrometer (IMS) for snapshot hyperspectral imaging applications","volume":"27","author":"Pawlowski","year":"2019","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1177\/1477153517739055","article-title":"Road lighting research for drivers and pedestrians: The basis of luminance and illuminance recommendations","volume":"50","author":"Fotios","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lighting Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70100001","article-title":"High-Resolution Imagery of Earth at Night: New Sources, Opportunities and Challenges","volume":"7","author":"Kyba","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"(2021, June 10). Gpixel. Available online: https:\/\/www.gpixel.com\/."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Meester, J., and Storch, T. (2020). Optimized Performance Parameters for Nighttime Multispectral Satellite Imagery to Analyze Lightings in Urban Areas. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20113313"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2334","DOI":"10.3788\/OPE.20182609.2334","article-title":"Optical-system design for large field-of-view three-line array airborne mapping camera","volume":"26","author":"Yao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Precis. Eng."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1364\/JOT.88.000014","article-title":"Design of a zoom telescope optical system with a large aperture, long focal length, and wide field of view via a catadioptric switching solution","volume":"88","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Opt. Technol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7648","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.54.007648","article-title":"Airborne ultraviolet imaging system for oil slick surveillance: Oil-seawater contrast, imaging concept, signal-to-noise ratio, optical design, and optomechanical model","volume":"54","author":"Shi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Mouroulis, P., and Macdonald, J. (1997). Geometrical Optics and Optical Design, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1117\/1.OE.55.11.115105","article-title":"Role of aberrations in the relative illumination of a lens system","volume":"55","author":"Reshidko","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G19","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.392303","article-title":"Image distortion, pupil coma, and relative illumination","volume":"59","author":"Johnson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1198","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.22.001198","article-title":"Calculation of refractive indices using Buchdahl\u2019s chromatic coordinate","volume":"22","author":"Robb","year":"1983","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3520","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.28.003520","article-title":"Buchdahl\u2019s glass dispersion coefficients calculated from Schott equation constants","volume":"28","author":"Reardon","year":"1989","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"694","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.28.000694","article-title":"Buchdahl\u2019s glass dispersion coefficients calculated in the near-infrared","volume":"28","author":"Chipman","year":"1989","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.58.000892","article-title":"Apochromatic lens design in he short-wave infrared band using the Buchdahl dispersion mode","volume":"58","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/13\/4313\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:22:52Z","timestamp":1760163772000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/13\/4313"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,24]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s21134313"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21134313","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,24]]}}}