{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]],"date-time":"2026-05-12T07:24:47Z","timestamp":1778570687287,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,5]],"date-time":"2021-07-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1625443200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Path planning of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for reconnaissance and look-ahead coverage support for mobile ground vehicles (MGVs) is a challenging task due to many unknowns being imposed by the MGVs\u2019 variable velocity profiles, change in heading, and structural differences between the ground and air environments. Few path planning techniques have been reported in the literature for multirotor UAVs that autonomously follow and support MGVs in reconnaissance missions. These techniques formulate the path planning problem as a tracking problem utilizing gimbal sensors to overcome the coverage and reconnaissance complexities. Despite their lack of considering additional objectives such as reconnaissance coverage and dynamic environments, they retain several drawbacks, including high computational requirements, hardware dependency, and low performance when the MGV has varying velocities. In this study, a novel 3D path planning technique for multirotor UAVs is presented, the enhanced dynamic artificial potential field (ED-APF), where path planning is formulated as both a follow and cover problem with nongimbal sensors. The proposed technique adopts a vertical sinusoidal path for the UAV that adapts relative to the MGV\u2019s position and velocity, guided by the MGV\u2019s heading for reconnaissance and exploration of areas and routes ahead beyond the MGV sensors\u2019 range, thus extending the MGV\u2019s reconnaissance capabilities. The amplitude and frequency of the sinusoidal path are determined to maximize the required look-ahead visual coverage quality in terms of pixel density and quantity pertaining to the area covered. The ED-APF was tested and validated against the general artificial potential field techniques for various simulation scenarios using Robot Operating System (ROS) and Gazebo-supported PX4-SITL. It demonstrated superior performance and showed its suitability for reconnaissance and look-ahead support to MGVs in dynamic and obstacle-populated environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21134595","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,5]],"date-time":"2021-07-05T22:02:04Z","timestamp":1625522524000},"page":"4595","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["UAV Path Planning for Reconnaissance and Look-Ahead Coverage Support for Mobile Ground Vehicles"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9877-081X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Herath M. P. C.","family":"Jayaweera","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Intelligent System Research and Innovation, Deakin University, Melbourne, VIC 3125, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8697-1515","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samer","family":"Hanoun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Intelligent System Research and Innovation, Deakin University, Melbourne, VIC 3125, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"940","DOI":"10.1080\/00140139.2010.500404","article-title":"UAV-guided navigation for ground robot tele-operation in a military reconnaissance environment","volume":"53","author":"Chen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ergonomics"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Butler, J.T. (2019, April 10). UAVS and ISR Sensor Technology. Air Command and Staff Coll Maxwell AFB Al, AU\/ACSC\/033\/2001-04. Available online: https:\/\/apps.dtic.mil\/docs\/citations\/ADA407741."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Boulanin, V., and Verbruggen, M. (2017). Availability and Military Use of UAVs, SIPRI."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1109\/TBC.2019.2892585","article-title":"High-Level Multiple-UAV Cinematography Tools for Covering Outdoor Events","volume":"65","author":"Mademlis","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Broadcast."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-012-9274-5","article-title":"The application of small unmanned aerial systems for precision agriculture: A review","volume":"13","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"47","article-title":"Comparison of a fixed-wing and multi-rotor UAV for environmental mapping applications: A case study","volume":"XLII-2\/W6","author":"Boon","year":"2017","journal-title":"ISPRS Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ast.2015.09.037","article-title":"Real-time path planning of unmanned aerial vehicle for target tracking and obstacle avoidance in complex dynamic environment","volume":"47","author":"Yao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Aerosp. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dt.2019.10.010","article-title":"Path planning for moving target tracking by fixed-wing UAV","volume":"16","author":"Liao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Def. Technol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.20108","article-title":"A cooperative perception system for multiple UAVs: Application to automatic detection of forest fires","volume":"23","author":"Merino","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Field Robot."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2017.07.187","article-title":"Unmanned Aircraft System Applications in Construction","volume":"196","author":"Tatum","year":"2017","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2362","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMC.2018.2808471","article-title":"A Novel Real-Time Moving Target Tracking and Path Planning System for a Quadrotor UAV in Unknown Unstructured Outdoor Scenes","volume":"49","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. Syst."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Lee, J., Huang, R., Vaughn, A., Xiao, X., Hedrick, J.K., Zennaro, M., and Sengupta, R. (2021, January 15). Strategies of Path-Planning for a UAV to Track a Ground Vehicle. Available online: https:\/\/cmapspublic.ihmc.us\/rid=1K7WQV94D-2CJ82KV-1YKD\/Strategies%20of%20Path-Planning%20for%20a%20fixed%20wing%20UAV%20to%20track%20a%20GV.pdf."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baek, S.S., Kwon, H., Yoder, J.A., and Pack, D. (2013, January 3\u20137). Optimal path planning of a target-following fixed-wing UAV using sequential decision processes. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Tokyo, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2013.6696775"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Lin, C.E., Yang, S., and Wang, Y. (2015). Camera Gimbal Control from UAV Autopilot Target Tracking. J. Aeronaut. Astronaut. Aviat., 47."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, X., Yang, Y., Ma, C., Li, J., and Zhang, S. (2020). Real-Time Visual Tracking of Moving Targets Using a Low-Cost Unmanned Aerial Vehicle with a 3-Axis Stabilized Gimbal System. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10155064"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106548","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2019.106548","article-title":"Model predictive control of three-axis gimbal system mounted on UAV for real-time target tracking under external disturbances","volume":"138","author":"Altan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012026","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/260\/1\/012026","article-title":"Trajectory tracking in quadrotor platform by using PD controller and LQR control approach","volume":"260","author":"Islam","year":"2017","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"35","article-title":"A review of some pure-pursuit based path tracking techniques for control of autonomous vehicle","volume":"135","author":"Samuel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stentz, A. (1997). Optimal and efficient path planning for partially known environments. Intelligent Unmanned Ground Vehicles, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-6325-9_11"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Yang, L., Qi, J., Xiao, J., and Yong, X. (July, January 29). A literature review of UAV 3D path planning. In Proceeding of the 11th World Congress on Intelligent Control and Automation, Shenyang, China."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shan, E., Dai, B., Song, J., and Sun, Z. (2009, January 12\u201314). A dynamic RRT path planning algorithm based on B-spline. Proceedings of the 2009 Second International Symposium on Computational Intelligence and Design, Changsha, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISCID.2009.155"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"718","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMCB.2003.811769","article-title":"A neural network approach to complete coverage path planning","volume":"34","author":"Yang","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. Part B"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Sedighi, K.H., Ashenayi, K., Manikas, T.W., Wainwright, R.L., and Tai, H. (2004, January 19\u201323). Autonomous local path planning for a mobile robot using a genetic algorithm. Proceedings of the 2004 Congress on Evolutionary Computation (IEEE Cat. No. 04TH8753), Portland, OR, USA."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"284","article-title":"PSO-based Motion Fuzzy Controller Design for Mobile Robots","volume":"10","author":"Wong","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Fuzzy Syst."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Liu, Y., Zhang, W.-G., Shi, J.-P., and Li, G.-W. (2014, January 8\u201310). A path planning method based on improved RRT. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE Chinese Guidance, Navigation and Control Conference, Yantai, China."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1729881418770525","DOI":"10.1177\/1729881418770525","article-title":"Motion planning with dynamics awareness for long reach manipulation in aerial robotic systems with two arms","volume":"15","author":"Caballero","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Robot. Syst."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1080\/01691864.2013.756386","article-title":"A Gaussian process-based RRT planner for the exploration of an unknown and cluttered environment with a UAV","volume":"27","author":"Yang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Robot."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3620","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2020.2975759","article-title":"A real-time approach for chance-constrained motion planning with dynamic obstacles","volume":"5","author":"Manuel","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Lett."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, C., Lee, S., Varnhagen, S., and Tseng, H.E. (2017, January 11\u201314). Path planning for autonomous vehicles using model predictive control. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium (IV), Los Angeles, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IVS.2017.7995716"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baca, T., Hert, D., Loianno, G., Saska, M., and Kumar, V. (2018, January 1\u20135). Model predictive trajectory tracking and collision avoidance for reliable outdoor deployment of unmanned aerial vehicles. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), Madrid, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2018.8594266"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, L., and Fuller, J. (2001, January 25\u201327). Trajectory generation for a UAV in urban terrain, using nonlinear MPC. Proceedings of the 2001 American Control Conference (Cat. No. 01CH37148), Arlington, VA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ACC.2001.946095"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rafi, F., Khan, S., Shafiq, K., and Shah, M. (2006). Autonomous Target Following by Unmanned Aerial Vehicles, International Society for Optics and Photonics.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.667356"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Husby, C.R. (2005). Path Generation Tactics for a UAV Following a Moving Target, Air Force Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fresk, E., and Nikolakopoulos, G. (2013, January 17\u201319). Full quaternion based attitude control for a quadrotor. Proceedings of the 2013 European Control Conference (ECC), Zurich, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.23919\/ECC.2013.6669617"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.5391\/IJFIS.2018.18.3.204","article-title":"Design of Fuzzy-PID Controller for Quadcopter Trajectory-Tracking","volume":"18","author":"Rabah","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Fuzzy Log. Intell. Syst."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38407","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2906345","article-title":"Autonomous Moving Target-Tracking for a UAV Quadcopter Based on Fuzzy-PI","volume":"7","author":"Rabah","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-27857-5_76","article-title":"Dynamic Target Tracking and Obstacle Avoidance using a Drone","volume":"Volume 9474","author":"Bebis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Advances in Visual Computing"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Open Source for Drones (2020, January 09). PX4 Open Source Autopilot. Available online: https:\/\/px4.io\/."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2019, December 09). ArduPilot Documentation: ArduPilot Documentation. Available online: https:\/\/ardupilot.org\/ardupilot\/."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192760","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3032929","article-title":"A Dynamic Artificial Potential Field (D-APF) UAV Path Planning Technique for Following Ground Moving Targets","volume":"8","author":"Jayaweera","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sfeir, J., Saad, M., and Saliah-Hassane, H. (2011, January 17\u201318). An improved Artificial Potential Field approach to real-time mobile robot path planning in an unknown environment. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE International Symposium on Robotic and Sensors Environments (ROSE), Montreal, QC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROSE.2011.6058518"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2018). Robot Operating System, Springer."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"(2019, April 15). Gazebo. Available online: http:\/\/gazebosim.org\/."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"RPAS (2021, March 21). Drone Safety Rules. Civil Aviation Safety Authority, Available online: https:\/\/www.casa.gov.au\/drones\/rules\/drone-safety-rules."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"(2021, May 03). Gazebo Simulation PX4 v1.9.0 Developer Guide. Available online: https:\/\/dev.px4.io\/v1.9.0_noredirect\/en\/simulation\/gazebo.html."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/13\/4595\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:26:05Z","timestamp":1760163965000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/13\/4595"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,5]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s21134595"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21134595","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,5]]}}}