{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,3]],"date-time":"2026-03-03T16:13:40Z","timestamp":1772554420586,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,9]],"date-time":"2021-07-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1625788800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["61805248"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61805248"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["61575205"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61575205"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Virtual Shack\u2013Hartmann wavefront sensing (vSHWS) can flexibly adjust parameters to meet different requirements without changing the system, and it is a promising means for aberration measurement. However, how to optimize its parameters to achieve the best performance is rarely discussed. In this work, the data processing procedure and methods of vSHWS were demonstrated by using a set of normal human ocular aberrations as an example. The shapes (round and square) of a virtual lenslet, the zero-padding of the sub-aperture electric field, sub-aperture number, as well as the sequences (before and after diffraction calculation), algorithms, and interval of data interpolation, were analyzed to find the optimal configuration. The effect of the above optimizations on its anti-noise performance was also studied. The Zernike coefficient errors and the root mean square of the wavefront error between the reconstructed and preset wavefronts were used for performance evaluation. The performance of the optimized vSHWS could be significantly improved compared to that of a non-optimized one, which was also verified with 20 sets of clinical human ocular aberrations. This work makes the vSHWS\u2019s implementation clearer, and the optimization methods and the obtained results are of great significance for its applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21144698","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,9]],"date-time":"2021-07-09T04:14:57Z","timestamp":1625804097000},"page":"4698","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Optimization of Virtual Shack-Hartmann Wavefront Sensing"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5100-0401","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xian","family":"Yue","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Adaptive Optics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610209, China"},{"name":"Institute of Optics and Electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610209, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0071-1123","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yaliang","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Adaptive Optics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610209, China"},{"name":"Institute of Optics and Electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610209, China"}]},{"given":"Fei","family":"Xiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Adaptive Optics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610209, China"},{"name":"Institute of Optics and Electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610209, China"}]},{"given":"Hao","family":"Dai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Adaptive Optics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610209, China"},{"name":"Institute of Optics and Electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610209, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"given":"Chao","family":"Geng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Adaptive Optics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610209, China"},{"name":"Institute of Optics and Electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610209, China"}]},{"given":"Yudong","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Adaptive Optics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610209, China"},{"name":"Institute of Optics and Electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610209, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"656","article-title":"Production and use of a lenticular Hartmann screen","volume":"61","author":"Shack","year":"1971","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-8711.2002.05847.x","article-title":"SLODAR: Measuring optical turbulence altitude with a Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor","volume":"337","author":"Wilson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optcom.2017.03.002","article-title":"Wavefront control of main-amplifier system in the SG-III laser facility","volume":"394","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Opt. Comm."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optcom.2003.11.020","article-title":"Towards Wide-Field Retinal Imaging with Adaptive Optics","volume":"230","author":"Glanc","year":"2004","journal-title":"Opt. Comm."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8722","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.54.008722","article-title":"Experimental demonstration of single-mode fiber coupling over relatively strong turbulence with adaptive optics","volume":"54","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optcom.2015.11.011","article-title":"Measuring conic constant and vertex radius of fast convex conic surfaces from a set of Hartmann patterns","volume":"363","author":"Yobani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opt. Comm."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dai, G. (2008). Wavefront Optics for Vision Correction, SPIE. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1117\/3.769212"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2018.03.027","article-title":"Effect of a Contact Lens on Mouse Retinal in vivo Imaging: Effective Focal Length Changes and Monochromatic Aberrations","volume":"172","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1117\/1.1625950","article-title":"Reconfigurable Shack-Hartmann Wavefront Sensor","volume":"43","author":"Rha","year":"2004","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3458","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.18.003458","article-title":"Depth-Resolved Wavefront Aberrations Using a Coherence-Gated Shack-Hartmann Wavefront Sensor","volume":"18","author":"Tuohy","year":"2010","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2255","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.29.002255","article-title":"Coherence-gated wave-front sensing in strongly scattering samples","volume":"29","author":"Feierabend","year":"2004","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3517","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSAA.24.003517","article-title":"Properties of coherence-gated wavefront sensing","volume":"24","author":"Denk","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am. A"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cubby, J.A. (2013). Coherence-gated wavefront sensing. Adaptive Optics for Biological Imaging, CRC Press. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1364\/AOPT.2013.OM2A.4"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25425","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.23.025425","article-title":"Phase unwrapping with a virtual Hartmann-Shack wavefront sensor","volume":"23","author":"Akondi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4151","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.44.004151","article-title":"Accounting for focal shift in the Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor","volume":"44","author":"Akondi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Porter, J., Queener, H.M., Lin, J.E., Thorn, L., and Awwal, A. (2006). Wavefront sensing and diagnostic uses. Adaptive Optics for Vision Science-Principles, Practices, Design, and Applications, Wiley-Interscience. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1002\/0471914878"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4167","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.44.004167","article-title":"Centroid error due to non-uniform lenslet illumination in the Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor","volume":"44","author":"Akondi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9715","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.22.009715","article-title":"Snapshot coherence-gated direct wavefront sensing for multi-photon microscopy","volume":"22","author":"Werkhoven","year":"2014","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17137","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0604791103","article-title":"Adaptive wavefront correction in tow-photon microscopy using coherence-gated wavefront sensing","volume":"103","author":"Denk","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"63060H1","article-title":"Coherence-gated wavefront sensing using a virtual Shack-Hartmann sensor","volume":"Volume 6306","author":"Giles","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Advanced Wavefront Control: Methods, Deveices, and Applications IV"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2510","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.3.002510","article-title":"Measuring aberrations in the rat brain by coherence-gated wavefront sensing using a linnik interferometer","volume":"23","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"822702","article-title":"Measuring aberrations in the rat brain by a new coherence-gated wavefront sensor using a linnik interferometer","volume":"Volume 8227","author":"Conchello","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Three-Dimensional and Multidimensional Microscopy: Image Acquisition and Processing XIX"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1475-1313.2002.00059.x","article-title":"A statistical model of the aberration structure of normal, well-corrected eyes","volume":"22","author":"Thibos","year":"2002","journal-title":"Ophthal. Physiol. Opt."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mahajan, V.N. (2013). Optical Imaging and Aberration, Part. III: Wavefront Analysis, SPIE. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1117\/3.927341"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2329","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSAA.19.002329","article-title":"Statistical variation of aberration structure and image quality in a normal population of healthy eyes","volume":"19","author":"Thibos","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am. A"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S652","DOI":"10.3928\/1081-597X-20020901-30","article-title":"Standards for reporting the optical aberrations of eyes","volume":"18","author":"Thibos","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Refract. Surg."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Shi, S., Wang, X., and Ma, L. (2014). Physical Optics and Applied Optics, XDUPH. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"96740N","article-title":"Virtual Hartmann-Shack image applied in laser beam wavefront correction and numerical simulation method","volume":"Volume 9674","author":"Gong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Optical and Optoelectronic Sensing and Imaging Technology"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1016\/S0030-3992(02)00100-7","article-title":"A study on a fast measuring technique of wavefront using a Shack-Hartmann sensor","volume":"34","author":"Park","year":"2002","journal-title":"Opt. Laser Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6088","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.48.006088","article-title":"Adaptive thresholding and dynamic windowing method for automatic centroid detection of digital Shack\u2013Hartmann wavefront sensor","volume":"48","author":"Yin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.23.000995","article-title":"Dynamic range expansion of a Shack-Hartmann sensor by use of a modified unwrapping algorithm","volume":"23","author":"Pfund","year":"1998","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/14\/4698\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:28:11Z","timestamp":1760164091000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/14\/4698"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,9]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s21144698"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21144698","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,9]]}}}