{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,6]],"date-time":"2026-02-06T23:06:52Z","timestamp":1770419212106,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,9]],"date-time":"2021-08-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1628467200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["No.11673050"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No.11673050"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Pseudolite deployment is the premise of ground-based pseudolite system networking, which affects the coverage and positioning accuracy of ground-based pseudolite systems. Optimal deployment algorithms can help to achieve a higher signal coverage and lower mean horizontal precision factor (HDOP) with a limited number of pseudolites. In this paper, we proposed a multi-objective particle swarm optimization (MOPSO) algorithm for the deployment of a ground-based pseudolite system. The new algorithm combines Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data and uses the mean HDOP of the DEM grid to measure the geometry of the pseudolite system. The signal coverage of the pseudolite system was calculated based on the visual area analysis with respect to reference planes, which effectively avoids the repeated calculation of the intersection and improves the calculation efficiency. A selected area covering 10 km\u00d710 km in the Jiuzhaigou area of China was used to verify the new algorithm. The results showed that both the coverage and HDOP achieved were optimal using the new algorithm, where the coverage area can be up to approximately 50% and 30% more than using the existing particle swarm optimization (PSO) and convex polyhedron volume optimization (CPVO) algorithms, respectively.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21165364","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,9]],"date-time":"2021-08-09T09:03:53Z","timestamp":1628499833000},"page":"5364","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["A New Ground-Based Pseudolite System Deployment Algorithm Based on MOPSO"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Wenjie","family":"Tang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200030, China"},{"name":"School of Astronomy and Space Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2899-7677","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Junping","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200030, China"},{"name":"School of Astronomy and Space Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chao","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200030, China"},{"name":"School of Astronomy and Space Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9693-4999","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Junsheng","family":"Ding","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200030, China"},{"name":"School of Astronomy and Space Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ruyuan","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200030, China"},{"name":"School of Astronomy and Space Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1017\/S0373463312000082","article-title":"Multi-Constellation GNSS Performance Evaluation for Urban Canyons Using Large Virtual Reality City Models","volume":"65","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Navig."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1007\/s40328-012-0010-4","article-title":"Performance Assessment of GPS\/GLONASS Single Point Positioning in an Urban Environment","volume":"48","author":"Angrisano","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta Geod. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2014.2342452","article-title":"Measuring GNSS Multipath Distributions in Urban Canyon Environments","volume":"64","author":"Xie","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1909","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2017.2654359","article-title":"Multiple Faulty GNSS Measurement Exclusion Based on Consistency Check in Urban Canyons","volume":"17","author":"Hsu","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6104","DOI":"10.3390\/s140406104","article-title":"A Pseudolite-Based Positioning System for Legacy GNSS Receivers","volume":"14","author":"Kim","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"1","article-title":"New Generation GNSS Augmentation System Based on Generalized Pseudolite","volume":"2","author":"Zhu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bull. Surv. Mapp."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sheng, C., Gan, X., Yu, B., and Zhang, J. (2020). Precise Point Positioning Algorithm for Pseudolite Combined with GNSS in a Constrained Observation Environment. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20041120"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.2322\/tjsass.52.59","article-title":"Extending Operational Area of Pseudolite Using Long Integration Time and Data-less Pseudolites","volume":"52","author":"Kee","year":"2009","journal-title":"Trans. Jpn. Soc. Aeronaut. Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-003-0357-y","article-title":"Impact of GPS Satellite and Pseudolite Geometry on Structural Deformation Monitoring: Analytical and Empirical Studies","volume":"77","author":"Meng","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1007\/PL00012902","article-title":"Pseudo-Satellite Applications in Deformation Monitoring","volume":"5","author":"Dai","year":"2002","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"12","article-title":"The Research on the Plans of PL-only Positioning System","volume":"7","author":"Meng","year":"2007","journal-title":"Hydrogr. Surv. Charting"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"1","article-title":"Configuration of Pseudolite-alone Positioning System Based on DOP Geometry Structure","volume":"9","author":"Sang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bull. Surv. Mapp."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"743","article-title":"Study of Configuration Technology of Ground Pseudolit","volume":"21","author":"Song","year":"2013","journal-title":"Comput. Meas. Control"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"21","article-title":"Distribution of the near-space pseudolite regional independent network","volume":"37","author":"Fan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sci. Surv. Mapp."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1109\/7.55563","article-title":"Additional Resultson Reducing Geometricdilution of Precision Using Ridgeregression","volume":"26","author":"Kelly","year":"1990","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"70","article-title":"PSO-based Pseudolite Layout Strategy","volume":"11","author":"Shao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Commun. Technol."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Kang, G. (2006). The Study of the Pseudolite Positioning System. [Ph.D. Thesis, Northwestern Polytechnical University]."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Wang, H. (2009). Research of Pseudolite Augmenting GPS Technique and Applications, Shanghai Jiao Tong University."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"284","article-title":"Key Technologies of Terrain Viewshed Analysis Based on DEM","volume":"40","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1002\/j.2161-4296.1992.tb02279.x","article-title":"Effect of Terrain Masking on GPS Position Dilution of Precision","volume":"39","author":"Duerr","year":"1992","journal-title":"Navigation"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.11728\/cjss2005.01.057","article-title":"The Research On GDOP of PL-aided Beidou Positioning system","volume":"25","author":"Wang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Chin. J. Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1109\/TEVC.2004.826067","article-title":"Handling Multiple Objectives with Particle Swarm Optimization","volume":"8","author":"Coello","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Evol. Comput."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"1286","article-title":"Solutions of Multi-Objective Optimization Problems Based on Particle Swarm Optimization","volume":"41","author":"Zhang","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Comput. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4289","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2010.2072939","article-title":"Satellite Selection Method for Multi-Constellation GNSS Using Convex Geometry","volume":"59","author":"Nunes","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/16\/5364\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:42:47Z","timestamp":1760164967000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/16\/5364"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,9]]},"references-count":24,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s21165364"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21165364","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,9]]}}}