{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,12]],"date-time":"2026-07-12T09:53:48Z","timestamp":1783850028947,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":215,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,18]],"date-time":"2021-08-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1629244800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Centre of Excellence for Engineered Quantum Systems, Australian Research Council","award":["CE170100009"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CE170100009"]}]},{"name":"Defence Science and Technology Group of the Department of Defence, Commonwealth of Australia","award":["NGTF QT30\/40"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NGTF QT30\/40"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100006193","name":"Glenn Research Center","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SCaN"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SCaN"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100006193","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Aerospace technologies are crucial for modern civilization; space-based infrastructure underpins weather forecasting, communications, terrestrial navigation and logistics, planetary observations, solar monitoring, and other indispensable capabilities. Extraplanetary exploration\u2014including orbital surveys and (more recently) roving, flying, or submersible unmanned vehicles\u2014is also a key scientific and technological frontier, believed by many to be paramount to the long-term survival and prosperity of humanity. All of these aerospace applications require reliable control of the craft and the ability to record high-precision measurements of physical quantities. Magnetometers deliver on both of these aspects and have been vital to the success of numerous missions. In this review paper, we provide an introduction to the relevant instruments and their applications. We consider past and present magnetometers, their proven aerospace applications, and emerging uses. We then look to the future, reviewing recent progress in magnetometer technology. We particularly focus on magnetometers that use optical readout, including atomic magnetometers, magnetometers based on quantum defects in diamond, and optomechanical magnetometers. These optical magnetometers offer a combination of field sensitivity, size, weight, and power consumption that allows them to reach performance regimes that are inaccessible with existing techniques. This promises to enable new applications in areas ranging from unmanned vehicles to navigation and exploration.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21165568","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,18]],"date-time":"2021-08-18T22:51:00Z","timestamp":1629327060000},"page":"5568","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":122,"title":["Precision Magnetometers for Aerospace Applications: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4421-919X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"James S.","family":"Bennett","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mathematics and Physics, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Brian E.","family":"Vyhnalek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NASA Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, OH 44135, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5982-9185","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hamish","family":"Greenall","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mathematics and Physics, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5947-5930","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elizabeth M.","family":"Bridge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mathematics and Physics, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9053-9792","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fernando","family":"Gotardo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mathematics and Physics, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2747-9838","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefan","family":"Forstner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mathematics and Physics, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3651-839X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Glen I.","family":"Harris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mathematics and Physics, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"F\u00e9lix A.","family":"Miranda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NASA Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, OH 44135, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8127-1715","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Warwick P.","family":"Bowen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mathematics and Physics, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2006SW000260","article-title":"GPS and ionospheric scintillations","volume":"5","author":"Kintner","year":"2007","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1022902713136","article-title":"Geomagnetic Hazards to Conducting Networks","volume":"28","author":"Boteler","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1029\/2018SW002008","article-title":"High-Frequency Communications Response to Solar Activity in September 2017 as Observed by Amateur Radio Networks","volume":"17","author":"Frissell","year":"2019","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-56599-1","article-title":"Precursory worldwide signatures of earthquake occurrences on Swarm satellite data","volume":"9","author":"Santis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Liu, H., Dong, H., Ge, J., and Liu, Z. (2020). An Overview of Technologies for Geophysical Vector Magnetic Survey: A Case Study of the Instrumentation and Future Directions. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1038\/s41561-020-0537-x","article-title":"Crustal and time-varying magnetic fields at the InSight landing site on Mars","volume":"13","author":"Johnson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1007\/s11214-017-0334-z","article-title":"The Juno Magnetic Field Investigation","volume":"213","author":"Connerney","year":"2017","journal-title":"Space Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1007\/s11214-004-1432-2","article-title":"The Cassini Magnetic Field Investigation","volume":"114","author":"Dougherty","year":"2004","journal-title":"Space Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hart, W., Brown, G.M., Collins, S.M., De Soria-Santacruz Pich, M., Fieseler, P., Goebel, D., Marsh, D., Oh, D.Y., Snyder, S., and Warner, N. (2018, January 3\u201310). Overview of the spacecraft design for the Psyche mission concept. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE Aerospace Conference, Big Sky, MT, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/AERO.2018.8396444"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.12942\/lrsp-2013-5","article-title":"The Heliospheric Magnetic Field","volume":"10","author":"Owens","year":"2013","journal-title":"Living Rev. Sol. Phys."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"405","article-title":"A novel photonic magnetometer for detection of low frequency magnetic fields","volume":"Volume 8120","author":"Yin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Photonic Fiber and Crystal Devices: Advances in Materials and Innovations in Device Applications V"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carletta, S., Teofilatto, P., and Farissi, S. (2020). A Magnetometer-Only Attitude Determination Strategy for Small Satellites: Design of the Algorithm and Hardware-in-the-Loop Testing. Aerospace, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/aerospace7010003"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2009GC002471","article-title":"EMAG2: A 2-arc min resolution Earth Magnetic Anomaly Grid compiled from satellite, airborne, and marine magnetic measurements","volume":"10","author":"Maus","year":"2009","journal-title":"Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2018.2852632","article-title":"A Nonlinear Regression Application via Machine Learning Techniques for Geomagnetic Data Reconstruction Processing","volume":"57","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3717","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1510570","article-title":"Space-based magnetometers","volume":"73","year":"2002","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2271","DOI":"10.3390\/s90402271","article-title":"Small Magnetic Sensors for Space Applications","volume":"9","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1007\/s11214-010-9643-1","article-title":"Planetary Magnetic Field Measurements: Missions and Instrumentation","volume":"152","author":"Balogh","year":"2010","journal-title":"Space Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"031302","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5026238","article-title":"Chip-scale atomic devices","volume":"5","author":"Kitching","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Rev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"023394","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevResearch.2.023394","article-title":"Diamond magnetometer enhanced by ferrite flux concentrators","volume":"2","author":"Fescenko","year":"2020","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1064","DOI":"10.1364\/PRJ.390261","article-title":"Ultrabroadband and sensitive cavity optomechanical magnetometry","volume":"8","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Photon. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"374","article-title":"Dragonfly: A Rotorcraft Lander Concept for Scientific Exploration at Titan","volume":"34","author":"Lorenz","year":"2018","journal-title":"John Hopkins APL Tech. Dig."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Rodriguez, S., Vinatier, S., Cordier, D., Carrasco, N., Charnay, B., Cornet, T., Coustenis, A., de Kok, R., Freissinet, C., and Galand, M. (2019). Science Goals and Mission Concepts for a Future Orbital and In Situ Exploration of Titan, Planetary and Space Science Group, Universit\u00e9 de Paris. White Paper."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Choblet, G., Buch, A., Cadek, O., Camprubi-Casas, E., Freissinet, C., Hedman, M., Jones, G., Lainey, V., Gall, A.L., and Lucchetti, A. (2019). Enceladus as a Potential Oasis for Life: Science Goals and Investigations for Future Explorations, Laboratoire de Plan\u00e9tologie et G\u00e9odynamique, Nantes Universit\u00e9. White Paper."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/s11214-015-0139-x","article-title":"The Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN) Mission","volume":"195","author":"Jakosky","year":"2015","journal-title":"Space Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1572","DOI":"10.1007\/s11214-015-0169-4","article-title":"The MAVEN Magnetic Field Investigation","volume":"195","author":"Connerney","year":"2015","journal-title":"Space Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1007\/s11214-009-9567-9","article-title":"Space Exploration of Planetary Magnetism","volume":"152","author":"Ness","year":"2010","journal-title":"Space Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37077","DOI":"10.1038\/srep37077","article-title":"Vectorized magnetometer for space applications using electrical readout of atomic scale defects in silicon carbide","volume":"6","author":"Cochrane","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1109\/TGE.1974.294327","article-title":"FFT Analysis of a Space Magnetometer Noise","volume":"12","author":"Candidi","year":"1974","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Electron."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13815","DOI":"10.3390\/s140813815","article-title":"High-sensitivity low-noise miniature fluxgate magnetometers using a flip chip conceptual design","volume":"14","author":"Lu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1093","DOI":"10.1007\/s10948-014-2788-5","article-title":"Design of Ring Core Fluxgate Magnetometer as Attitude Control Sensor for Low and High Orbit Satellites","volume":"28","author":"Can","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Supercond. Nov. Magn."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11839","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JA023147","article-title":"A miniature, low-power scientific fluxgate magnetometer: A stepping-stone to cube-satellite constellation missions","volume":"121","author":"Miles","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6453243","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/6453243","article-title":"Digital Fluxgate Magnetometer for Detection of Microvibration","volume":"2017","author":"Zhi","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Sens."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1007\/s11214-016-0236-5","article-title":"The MASCOT Magnetometer","volume":"208","author":"Auster","year":"2017","journal-title":"Space Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1109\/TGE.1978.294545","article-title":"The ISEE-C Vector Helium Magnetometer","volume":"16","author":"Frandsen","year":"1978","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Electron."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"C4-655","article-title":"An isotropic earth field scalar magnetometer using optically pumped helium 4","volume":"4","author":"Guttin","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Phys. IV Proc. EDP Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2014.05.003","article-title":"Towards a miniature atomic scalar magnetometer using a liquid crystal polarization rotator","volume":"216","author":"Rutkowski","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1186\/s40623-015-0231-1","article-title":"In-flight performance of the Absolute Scalar Magnetometer vector mode on board the Swarm satellites","volume":"67","author":"Jager","year":"2015","journal-title":"Earth Planets Space"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"075104","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5093533","article-title":"All-optical isotropic scalar 4He magnetometer based on atomic alignment","volume":"90","author":"Lieb","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"221","article-title":"The magnetic field investigation on the ULYSSES mission\u2014Instrumentation and preliminary scientific results","volume":"92","author":"Balogh","year":"1992","journal-title":"Astron. Astrophys. Suppl. Ser."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0468-5","article-title":"A complex dynamo inferred from the hemispheric dichotomy of Jupiter\u2019s magnetic field","volume":"561","author":"Moore","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1007\/s11214-014-0057-3","article-title":"The Magnetospheric Multiscale Magnetometers","volume":"199","author":"Russel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Space Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pss.2012.12.002","article-title":"JUpiter ICy moons Explorer (JUICE): An ESA mission to orbit Ganymede and to characterise the Jupiter system","volume":"78","author":"Grasset","year":"2013","journal-title":"Planet. Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1311","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-15160-9","article-title":"NASA\u2019s Europa Clipper\u2014A mission to a potentially habitable ocean world","volume":"11","author":"Howell","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Klesh, A.T., Baker, J.D., Bellardo, J., Castillo-Rogez, J., Cutler, J., Halatek, L., Lightsey, E.G., Murphy, N., and Raymond, C. (2013, January 10\u201312). INSPIRE: Interplanetary NanoSpacecraft Pathfinder in Relevant Environment. Proceedings of the AIAA SPACE 2013 Conference and Exposition, San Diego, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.2514\/6.2013-5323"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1007\/s11214-021-00815-w","article-title":"The Ingenuity Helicopter on the Perseverance Rover","volume":"217","author":"Balaram","year":"2021","journal-title":"Space Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1409","DOI":"10.1038\/1821409a0","article-title":"Progress of the Russian Earth Satellite Sputnik 3","volume":"182","year":"1958","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2495","DOI":"10.1029\/JB090iB03p02495","article-title":"The near-Earth magnetic field at 1980 determined from Magsat data","volume":"90","author":"Langel","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12378","DOI":"10.1002\/2017JA024614","article-title":"The Relationship of High-Latitude Thermospheric Wind With Ionospheric Horizontal Current, as Observed by CHAMP Satellite","volume":"122","author":"Huang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1029\/01EO00043","article-title":"\u00d8rsted satellite captures high-precision geomagnetic field data","volume":"82","author":"Neubert","year":"2001","journal-title":"EOS Trans. Am. Geophys. Union"},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Leger, J.M., Bertrand, F., Jager, T., and Fratter, I. (2011, January 3\u20137). Spaceborn scalar magnetometers for Earth\u2019s field studies. Proceedings of the 62nd International Astronautical Congress 2011, Cape Town, South Africa."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2011SW000724","article-title":"Global Joule heating index derived from thermospheric density physics-based modeling and observations","volume":"10","author":"Fedrizzi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1117\/12.254077","article-title":"Monitoring space weather with the GOES magnetometers","volume":"Volume 2812","author":"Washwell","year":"1996","journal-title":"GOES-8 and Beyond"},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"NOAA NASA Boeing (2009). GOES N Series Data Book Revision C."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1007\/s11214-019-0600-3","article-title":"The GOES-16 Spacecraft Science Magnetometer","volume":"215","author":"Redmon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Space Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"NASA (JPL) (2003). Global Earthquake Satellite System: A 20-Year Plan to Enable Earthquake Prediction."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2013.06.017","article-title":"Detection and monitoring of earthquake precursors: TwinSat, a Russia\u2013UK satellite project","volume":"52","author":"Chmyrev","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuang, K. (2012). Application of Magnetic Sensors to Nano and Micro-Satellite Attitude Control Systems. Magnetic Sensors\u2014Principles and Applications, InTech.","DOI":"10.5772\/1361"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.5028\/jatm.v8i1.586","article-title":"Experimental Magnetometer Calibration for Nanosatellites Navigation System","volume":"8","author":"Amorim","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Inamori, T., Sako, N., and Nakasuka, S. (2010, January 2\u20135). Strategy of magnetometer calibration for nano-satellite missions and in-orbit performance. Proceedings of the AIAA Guidance, Navigation, and Control Conference, Toronto, ON, Canada."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"8","article-title":"Mission-Saving Instrument Secures New Flight Opportunity; Slated for Significant Upgrade","volume":"15","author":"Hughes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cut. Edge Goddard\u2019s Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"7","article-title":"Fluxgate and Magneto Inductive Magnetometers","volume":"16","author":"Hughes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cut. Edge Goddard\u2019s Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-4247(00)00375-7","article-title":"Ultra low noise induction magnetometer for variable temperature operation","volume":"85","author":"Prance","year":"2000","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1007\/s11214-014-0109-8","article-title":"The FIELDS Instrument Suite on MMS: Scientific Objectives, Measurements, and Data Products","volume":"199","author":"Torbert","year":"2016","journal-title":"Space Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ennen, I., Kappe, D., Rempel, T., Glenske, C., and Hutten, A. (2016). Giant Magnetoresistance: Basic Concepts, Microstructure, Magnetic Interactions and Applications. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16060904"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7919","DOI":"10.3390\/s91007919","article-title":"Magnetic Field Sensors Based on Giant Magnetoresistance (GMR) Technology: Applications in Electrical Current Sensing","volume":"9","author":"Reig","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-8853(98)00376-X","article-title":"GMR applications","volume":"192","author":"Daughton","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Magn. Magn. Mater."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125117","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4904702","article-title":"Space magnetometer based on an anisotropic magnetoresistive hybrid sensor","volume":"85","author":"Brown","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.5194\/angeo-33-725-2015","article-title":"The MAGIC of CINEMA: First in-flight science results from a miniaturised anisotropic magnetoresistive magnetometer","volume":"33","author":"Archer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"1","article-title":"The MEMS flux concentrator: Potential low-cost, high sensitivity magnetometer","volume":"361","author":"Edelstein","year":"2006","journal-title":"US Army Res."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1109\/JMEMS.2014.2322012","article-title":"High Resolution Magnetometer Based on a High Frequency Magnetoelectric MEMS-CMOS Oscillator","volume":"24","author":"Hui","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Microelectromechan. Syst."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1002","DOI":"10.1109\/JMEMS.2012.2196493","article-title":"Three-Axis Lorentz-Force Magnetic Sensor for Electronic Compass Applications","volume":"21","author":"Li","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Microelectromechan. Syst."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pala, S., \u00c7i\u00e7ek, M., and Azg\u0131n, K. (November, January 30). A Lorentz force MEMS magnetometer. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE SENSORS, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSENS.2016.7808507"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rasson, J.L., and Delipetrov, T. (2006). Geomagnetic Measurements for Aeronautics. Geomagnetics for Aeronautical Safety, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4020-5025-1"},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"27","article-title":"Geomagnetic Measurements and Maps for National Aeronautical Safety","volume":"60","author":"Isac","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rev. Roimaine G\u00e9ophys."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1029\/JZ065i003p00913","article-title":"Thye Vector Field Proton Magnetometer for IGY Satellite Ground Stations","volume":"65","author":"Shapiro","year":"1960","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"59","article-title":"An experimental detailed magnetic survey by light aircraft","volume":"210","author":"Lilley","year":"1964","journal-title":"Proc. Australas. Inst. Min. Metall."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRev.92.411","article-title":"Polarization of Nuclei in Metals","volume":"92","author":"Overhauser","year":"1953","journal-title":"Phys. Rev."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3197","DOI":"10.1109\/20.490326","article-title":"Overhauser magnetometer for the Danish Oersted satellite","volume":"31","author":"Duret","year":"1995","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Magn."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4935","DOI":"10.1109\/20.539293","article-title":"Performances of the OVH magnetometer for the Danish Oersted satellite","volume":"32","author":"Duret","year":"1996","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Magn."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hardy, J., Strader, J., Gross, J.N., Gu, Y., Keck, M., Douglas, J., and Taylor, C.N. (2016, January 11\u201314). Unmanned aerial vehicle relative navigation in GPS denied environments. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE\/ION Position, Location and Navigation Symposium (PLANS), Savannah, GA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/PLANS.2016.7479719"},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"Gebre-Egziabher, D., and Taylor, B. (2012). Impact and Mitigation of GPS-Unavailability on Small UAV Navigation, Guidance and Control White Paper, Department of Aerospace Engineering & Mechanics, University of Minnesota. Technical Report."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"P10011","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-0221\/14\/10\/P10011","article-title":"Classification of unexploded ordnance-like targets with characteristic response in transient electromagnetic sensing","volume":"14","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1011918119491","article-title":"Automatic Detection of UXO from Airborne Magnetic Data Using a Neural Network","volume":"2","author":"Salem","year":"2001","journal-title":"Subsurf. Sens. Technol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"Wiegert, R., and Oeschger, J. (2005, January 17\u201323). Generalized magnetic gradient contraction based method for detection, localization and discrimination of underwater mines and unexploded ordnance. Proceedings of the OCEANS 2005 MTS\/IEEE, Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.1109\/TASC.2007.898570","article-title":"A LTS-SQUID System for Archaeological Prospection and Its Practical Test in Peru","volume":"17","author":"Linzen","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1190\/1.1579574","article-title":"Recent advances in airborne survey technology yield performance approaching ground-based surveys","volume":"22","author":"Doll","year":"2003","journal-title":"Lead. Edge"},{"key":"ref_87","first-page":"266","article-title":"Important Design Considerations for Inboard Airborne Magnetic Gradiometers","volume":"15","author":"Hardwick","year":"1984","journal-title":"Explor. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1697","DOI":"10.3390\/s7091697","article-title":"High Resolution Marine Magnetic Survey of Shallow Water Littoral Area","volume":"7","author":"Weiss","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1095-9270.2004.00010.x","article-title":"Marine Magnetic Survey of a Submerged Roman Harbour, Caesarea Maritima, Israel","volume":"33","author":"Boyce","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Naut. Archaeol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsr.2007.11.004","article-title":"Hydrothermal exploration with the Autonomous Benthic Explorer","volume":"55","author":"German","year":"2008","journal-title":"Deep. Sea Res. Part I Oceanogr. Res. Pap."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gamey, T.J., Doll, W.E., and Beard, L.P. (2005). Initial design and testing of a full-tensor airborne SQUID magnetometer for detection of unexploded ordnance. SEG Technical Program Expanded Abstracts 2004, Society of Exploration Geophysicists.","DOI":"10.1190\/1.1845298"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1109\/TASC.2007.897403","article-title":"Highly Sensitive and Easy-to-Use SQUID Sensors","volume":"17","author":"Drung","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1138","DOI":"10.1063\/1.113838","article-title":"High-resolution scanning SQUID microscope","volume":"66","author":"Kirtley","year":"1995","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hao, H., Wang, H., Chen, L., Wu, J., Qiu, L., and Rong, L. (2017). Initial Results from SQUID Sensor: Analysis and Modeling for the ELF\/VLF Atmospheric Noise. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17020371"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3487","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1572968","article-title":"Monolithic low-transition-temperature superconducting magnetometers for high resolution imaging magnetic fields of room temperature samples","volume":"82","author":"Baudenbacher","year":"2003","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3396","DOI":"10.1109\/77.783758","article-title":"Operation of rf SQUID magnetometers with a multi-turn flux transformer integrated with a superconducting labyrinth resonator","volume":"9","author":"Zhang","year":"1999","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"072603","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4976823","article-title":"An ultra-sensitive and wideband magnetometer based on a superconducting quantum interference device","volume":"110","author":"Storm","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162602","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5048776","article-title":"Direct-coupled micro-magnetometer with Y-Ba-Cu-O nano-slit SQUID fabricated with a focused helium ion beam","volume":"113","author":"Cho","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/TASC.2020.3004896","article-title":"SQUID Magnetometer Based on Grooved Dayem Nanobridges and a Flux Transformer","volume":"30","author":"Trabaldo","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1088\/0022-3727\/30\/3\/002","article-title":"SQUIDs for nondestructive evaluation","volume":"30","author":"Jenks","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Phys. D Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Clarke, J., and Braginski, A.I. (2004). The SQUID Handbook, Wiley Online Library.","DOI":"10.1002\/3527603646"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Faley, M.I., Kostyurina, E.A., Kalashnikov, K.V., Maslennikov, Y.V., Koshelets, V.P., and Dunin-Borkowski, R.E. (2017). Superconducting Quantum Interferometers for Nondestructive Evaluation. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17122798"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6481","DOI":"10.1021\/nl503022q","article-title":"Three-Junction SQUID-on-Tip with Tunable In-Plane and Out-of-Plane Magnetic Field Sensitivity","volume":"14","author":"Anahory","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"044032","DOI":"10.1088\/0953-2048\/27\/4\/044032","article-title":"A scanning SQUID microscope with 200 MHz bandwidth","volume":"27","author":"Talanov","year":"2014","journal-title":"Supercond. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1002\/arp.328","article-title":"Rapid and sensitive magnetometer surveys of large areas using SQUIDs\u2014the measurement system and its application to the Niederzimmern Neolithic double-ring ditch exploration","volume":"15","author":"Schultze","year":"2008","journal-title":"Archaeol. Prospect."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grosz, A., Haji-Sheikh, M.J., and Mukhopadhyay, S.C. (2017). Superconducting Quantum Interference Device (SQUID) Magnetometers. High Sensitivity Magnetometers, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-34070-8"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1046","DOI":"10.1021\/nl100009r","article-title":"Self-Aligned Nanoscale SQUID on a Tip","volume":"10","author":"Finkler","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1317","DOI":"10.1088\/0953-2048\/11\/11\/020","article-title":"High-temperature superconducting YBCO dc SQUID gradiometers fabricated on STO bicrystal substrate","volume":"11","author":"Carr","year":"1998","journal-title":"Supercond. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"095005","DOI":"10.1088\/0953-2048\/27\/9\/095005","article-title":"Fabrication and characterisation of series YBCO step-edge Josephson junction arrays","volume":"27","author":"Du","year":"2014","journal-title":"Supercond. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_110","unstructured":"Spohn, T., Breuer, D., and Johnson, T.V. (2014). Titan. Encyclopedia of the Solar System, Elsevier Inc."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-24010-2_2","article-title":"SQUID-Based Internal Defect Detection of Three-Dimensional Braided Composite Material","volume":"Volume 233","author":"Chen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Communications in Computer and Information Science"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2801-z","article-title":"Room-temperature superconductivity in a carbonaceous sulfur hydride","volume":"586","author":"Snider","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Macharet, D.G., Perez-Imaz, H.I.A., Rezeck, P.A.F., Potje, G.A., Benyosef, L.C.C., Wiermann, A., Freitas, G.M., Garcia, L.G.U., and Campos, M.F.M. (2016). Autonomous Aeromagnetic Surveys Using a Fluxgate Magnetometer. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16122169"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/TMAG.2020.2986988","article-title":"Airborne Magnetic Surveying With a Drone and Determination of the Total Magnetization of a Dipole","volume":"56","author":"Calou","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Magn."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oh, S. (2010, January 5\u20137). Multisensor fusion for autonomous UAV navigation based on the Unscented Kalman Filter with Sequential Measurement Updates. Proceedings of the 2010 IEEE Conference on Multisensor Fusion and Integration, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/MFI.2010.5604461"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brzozowski, B., Rochala, Z., and Wojtowicz, K. (2017, January 21\u201323). Overview of the research on state-of-the-art measurement sensors for UAV navigation. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Workshop on Metrology for AeroSpace (MetroAeroSpace), Padua, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/MetroAeroSpace.2017.7999532"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13480","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2020.3004133","article-title":"Magnetic Fault\u2013Tolerant Navigation Filter for a UAV","volume":"20","author":"Youn","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1080\/10095020.2017.1420508","article-title":"Low-altitude geophysical magnetic prospecting based on multirotor UAV as a promising replacement for traditional ground survey","volume":"21","author":"Parshin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geo Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_119","unstructured":"Raquet, J.F., Shockley, J., and Fisher, K. (2013). Determining Absolute Position Using 3-Axis Magnetometers and the Need for Self-Building World Models, Air Force Institute of Technology, AFIT\/ENG. Technical Report STO-EN-SET-197."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gete.2019.03.002","article-title":"Fluxgate three-component magnetometers for cost-effective ground, UAV and airborne magnetic surveys for industrial and academic geoscience applications and comparison with current industrial standards through case studies","volume":"20","author":"Gavazzi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geomech. Energy Environ."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"021001","DOI":"10.1103\/RevModPhys.92.021001","article-title":"Colloquium: Quantum limits to the energy resolution of magnetic field sensors","volume":"92","author":"Mitchell","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rev. Mod. Phys."},{"key":"ref_122","first-page":"358","article-title":"Integration of micro-fabricated atomic magnetometers on military systems","volume":"Volume 9823","author":"Bishop","year":"2016","journal-title":"Detection and Sensing of Mines, Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XXI"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120806","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5055029","article-title":"Invited Article: Scalable high-sensitivity optomechanical magnetometers on a chip","volume":"3","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"APL Photonics"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5638","DOI":"10.1063\/1.353623","article-title":"The magnetostrictive laser diode magnetometer for personal magnetic field dosimetry","volume":"73","author":"Chung","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2930","DOI":"10.1063\/1.117327","article-title":"A microelectromechanical-based magnetostrictive magnetometer","volume":"69","author":"Osiander","year":"1996","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1177\/1045389X06072358","article-title":"Overview of Magnetostrictive Sensor Technology","volume":"18","author":"Calkins","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct."},{"key":"ref_127","first-page":"271","article-title":"Development of Miniature Magnetometers","volume":"18","author":"Wickenden","year":"1997","journal-title":"John Hopkins APL Tech. Dig."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1717911","article-title":"Magnetometer Based on the Hall Effect","volume":"33","author":"Viehmann","year":"1962","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Popovic, R.S. (2014, January 12\u201314). High resolution Hall magnetic sensors. Proceedings of the 2014 29th International Conference on Microelectronics Proceedings\u2014MIEL 2014, Belgrade, Serbia.","DOI":"10.1109\/MIEL.2014.6842087"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7870","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JA022389","article-title":"Miniature atomic scalar magnetometer for space based on the rubidium isotope 87Rb","volume":"121","author":"Korth","year":"2016","journal-title":"JGR Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"850","DOI":"10.1364\/OPTICA.5.000850","article-title":"Quantum enhanced optomechanical magnetometry","volume":"5","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Optica"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231103","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5095241","article-title":"Nanotesla sensitivity magnetic field sensing using a compact diamond nitrogen-vacancy magnetometer","volume":"114","author":"Webb","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"013413","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.87.013413","article-title":"Spin damping in an rf atomic magnetometer","volume":"87","author":"Alem","year":"2013","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. A"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113106","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4766961","article-title":"A full optically operated magnetometer array: An experimental study","volume":"83","author":"IJsselsteijn","year":"2012","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"023416","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.100.023416","article-title":"Voigt-effect-based three-dimensional vector magnetometer","volume":"100","author":"Pyragius","year":"2019","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. A"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"081102","DOI":"10.1063\/1.2709532","article-title":"Chip-scale atomic magnetometer with improved sensitivity by use of the Mx technique","volume":"90","author":"Schwindt","year":"2007","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"013001","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.113.013001","article-title":"All-Optical Vector Atomic Magnetometer","volume":"113","author":"Patton","year":"2014","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15448","DOI":"10.1038\/srep15448","article-title":"Cavity enhanced atomic magnetometry","volume":"5","author":"Ley","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"044702","DOI":"10.1116\/5.0025186","article-title":"Sensitive magnetometry in challenging environments","volume":"2","author":"Fu","year":"2020","journal-title":"AVS Quantum Sci."},{"key":"ref_140","unstructured":"GEM Systems (2021, May 13). GSMP Potassium Magnetometer for High Precision and Accuracy. Available online: https:\/\/www.gemsys.ca\/ultra-high-sensitivity-potassium\/."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2286","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0711505105","article-title":"Zero-field remote detection of NMR with a microfabricated atomic magnetometer","volume":"105","author":"Ledbetter","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.5589\/q12-005","article-title":"Magnetic resonance imaging of astronauts on the international space station and into the solar system","volume":"58","author":"Sarty","year":"2012","journal-title":"Can. Aeronaut. Space J."},{"key":"ref_143","first-page":"2373","article-title":"Spaceflight-induced neuroplasticity in humans as measured by MRI: What do we know so far?","volume":"3","author":"Laureys","year":"2017","journal-title":"NPJ Microgravity"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120801","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.108.120801","article-title":"Cavity Optomechanical Magnetometer","volume":"108","author":"Forstner","year":"2012","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1038\/nnano.2016.226","article-title":"Nanocavity optomechanical torque magnetometry and radiofrequency susceptometry","volume":"12","author":"Wu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6348","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201401144","article-title":"Ultrasensitive optomechanical magnetometry","volume":"26","author":"Forstner","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"044007","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevApplied.5.044007","article-title":"Optomechanical magnetometry with a macroscopic resonator","volume":"5","author":"Yu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Appl."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"072513","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3319502","article-title":"Nanotorsional resonator torque magnetometry","volume":"96","author":"Davis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8896","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-08875-1","article-title":"Polymer encapsulated microcavity optomechanical magnetometer","volume":"7","author":"Zhu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"095005","DOI":"10.1088\/1367-2630\/ab4386","article-title":"Two-axis cavity optomechanical torque characterization of magnetic microstructures","volume":"21","author":"Hajisalem","year":"2019","journal-title":"New J. Phys."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1051","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1231390","article-title":"Quantitative magneto-mechanical detection and control of the Barkhausen effect","volume":"339","author":"Burgess","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"07D309","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3540643","article-title":"Nanomechanical torsional resonator torque magnetometry","volume":"109","author":"Davis","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147201","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.125.147201","article-title":"Ferromagnetic Resonance Assisted Optomechanical Magnetometer","volume":"125","author":"Colombano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"031802","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.92.031802","article-title":"Optomechanical Raman-ratio thermometry","volume":"92","author":"Purdy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. A"},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1265","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aag1407","article-title":"Quantum correlations from a room-temperature optomechanical cavity","volume":"356","author":"Purdy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120603","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.125.120603","article-title":"Detecting Acoustic Blackbody Radiation with an Optomechanical Antenna","volume":"125","author":"Singh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-08038-4","article-title":"Precision ultrasound sensing on a chip","volume":"10","author":"Armin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1038\/s41566-021-00776-0","article-title":"Sensitive, small, broadband and scalable optomechanical ultrasound sensor in silicon photonics","volume":"15","author":"Westerveld","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Photonics"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8535","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.20.008535","article-title":"A nano-opto-mechanical pressure sensor via ring resonator","volume":"20","author":"Zhao","year":"2012","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1038\/nnano.2012.97","article-title":"A hybrid on-chip optomechanical transducer for ultrasensitive force measurements","volume":"7","author":"Gavartin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103603","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.111.103603","article-title":"Minimum requirements for feedback enhanced force sensing","volume":"111","author":"Harris","year":"2013","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1364\/OPTICA.413117","article-title":"Broadband thermomechanically limited sensing with an optomechanical accelerometer","volume":"8","author":"Zhou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Optica"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1038\/nphoton.2012.245","article-title":"A high-resolution microchip optomechanical accelerometer","volume":"6","author":"Krause","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Photonics"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221111","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4881936","article-title":"High sensitivity optomechanical reference accelerometer over 10 kHz","volume":"104","author":"Kumanchik","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1088\/0026-1394\/52\/5\/654","article-title":"Optomechanical reference accelerometer","volume":"52","author":"Gerberding","year":"2015","journal-title":"Metrologia"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thanalakshme, R.P., Kanj, A., Kim, J., Wilken-Resman, E., Jing, J., Grinberg, I.H., Bernhard, J.T., Tawfick, S., and Bahl, G. (2021). Magneto-Mechanical Transmitters for Ultra-Low Frequency Near-field Communication. arXiv.","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2021.3137244"},{"key":"ref_167","first-page":"031014","article-title":"All-Optical dc Nanotesla Magnetometry Using Silicon Vacancy Fine Structure in Isotopically Purified Silicon Carbide","volume":"6","author":"Simin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. X"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"034001","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevApplied.6.034001","article-title":"Vector Magnetometry Using Silicon Vacancies in 4H-SiC Under Ambient Conditions","volume":"6","author":"Niethammer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Appl."},{"key":"ref_169","first-page":"041001","article-title":"Subpicotesla Diamond Magnetometry","volume":"5","author":"Wolf","year":"2015","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. X"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"044019","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevApplied.8.044019","article-title":"Miniature Cavity-Enhanced Diamond Magnetometer","volume":"8","author":"Chatzidrosos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Appl."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1038\/nphys2543","article-title":"Nanoscale magnetic imaging of a single electron spin under ambient conditions","volume":"9","author":"Grinolds","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Phys."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2483","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-59064-6","article-title":"Magnetometer with nitrogen-vacancy center in a bulk diamond for detecting magnetic nanoparticles in biomedical applications","volume":"10","author":"Kuwahata","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160802","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.112.160802","article-title":"Cavity-Enhanced Room-Temperature Magnetometry Using Absorption by Nitrogen-Vacancy Centers in Diamond","volume":"112","author":"Jensen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6681","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.nanolett.9b02993","article-title":"dc Magnetometry with Engineered Nitrogen-Vacancy Spin Ensembles in Diamond","volume":"19","author":"Balasubramanian","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"025323","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5139115","article-title":"Microcontroller-based magnetometer using a single nitrogen-vacancy defect in a nanodiamond","volume":"10","author":"Pessoa","year":"2020","journal-title":"AIP Adv."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"056503","DOI":"10.1088\/0034-4885\/77\/5\/056503","article-title":"Magnetometry with nitrogen-vacancy defects in diamond","volume":"77","author":"Rondin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rep. Prog. Phys."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1038\/nature07278","article-title":"Nanoscale imaging magnetometry with diamond spins under ambient conditions","volume":"455","author":"Balasubramanian","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12072","article-title":"Optical magnetic imaging of living cells","volume":"496","author":"Arai","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252406","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5034216","article-title":"Robust high-dynamic-range vector magnetometry with nitrogen-vacancy centers in diamond","volume":"112","author":"Clevenson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/LMAG.2019.2891616","article-title":"High-Sensitivity Three-Axis Vector Magnetometry Using Electron Spin Ensembles in Single-Crystal Diamond","volume":"10","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Magn. Lett."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"022404","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5079925","article-title":"Demonstration of vector magnetic field sensing by simultaneous control of nitrogen-vacancy centers in diamond using multi-frequency microwave pulses","volume":"114","author":"Yahata","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7886","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms8886","article-title":"Nanometre-scale probing of spin waves using single electron spins","volume":"6","author":"Casola","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3254","DOI":"10.1002\/2017GC006946","article-title":"Micrometer-scale magnetic imaging of geological samples using a quantum diamond microscope","volume":"18","author":"Glenn","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1231540","article-title":"Nanoscale Nuclear Magnetic Resonance with a Nitrogen-Vacancy Spin Sensor","volume":"339","author":"Mamin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-18441-4","article-title":"Wide Band Low Noise Love Wave Magnetic Field Sensor System","volume":"8","author":"Kittmann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matlet.2012.06.100","article-title":"Quasi-static (f<10-2 Hz) frequency response of magnetoelectric composites based magnetic sensor","volume":"85","author":"Gao","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104504","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4718441","article-title":"Enhancement in magnetic field sensitivity and reduction in equivalent magnetic noise by magnetoelectric laminate stacks","volume":"111","author":"Li","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2808","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2019.2925411","article-title":"Hand-Held Magnetic Field Meter Based on Colossal Magnetoresistance-B-Scalar Sensor","volume":"69","author":"Balevicius","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2376","DOI":"10.1109\/TMAG.2007.893119","article-title":"Improving Magnetic Field Detection Limits of Spin Valve Sensors Using Magnetic Flux Guide Concentrators","volume":"43","author":"Guedes","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Magn."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2018.07.031","article-title":"Resolution limit of anisotropic magnetoresistance (AMR) based vector magnetometer","volume":"280","author":"Qiu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1007\/s00340-002-0959-8","article-title":"An all-optical, high-sensitivity magnetic gradiometer","volume":"75","author":"Affolderbach","year":"2002","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. B"},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27167","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.18.027167","article-title":"Femtotesla atomic magnetometry in a microfabricated vapor cell","volume":"18","author":"Griffith","year":"2010","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.3.000981","article-title":"Magnetoencephalography with a chip-scale atomic magnetometer","volume":"3","author":"Sander","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5827","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2020.2973201","article-title":"Single-Beam Atomic Magnetometer Based on the Transverse Magnetic-Modulation or DC-Offset","volume":"20","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Sensors J."},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"013416","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.80.013416","article-title":"Spin-exchange relaxation-free magnetometry using elliptically polarized light","volume":"80","author":"Shah","year":"2009","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. A"},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151110","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3491215","article-title":"Ultrahigh sensitivity magnetic field and magnetization measurements with an atomic magnetometer","volume":"97","author":"Dang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"031106","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4974349","article-title":"A microfabricated optically-pumped magnetic gradiometer","volume":"110","author":"Sheng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"043416","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.84.043416","article-title":"Light-narrowed optically pumped Mx magnetometer with a miniaturized Cs cell","volume":"84","author":"Scholtes","year":"2011","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. A"},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241105","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4770361","article-title":"A low-power, high-sensitivity micromachined optical magnetometer","volume":"101","author":"Mhaskar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012055","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/723\/1\/012055","article-title":"Microfabricated Optically-Pumped Magnetometers for Biomagnetic Applications","volume":"723","author":"Knappe","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.1038\/nature01484","article-title":"A subfemtotesla multichannel atomic magnetometer","volume":"422","author":"Kominis","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123011","DOI":"10.1088\/1367-2630\/aa9840","article-title":"Ultimate limits for quantum magnetometry via time-continuous measurements","volume":"19","author":"Albarelli","year":"2017","journal-title":"New J. Phys."},{"key":"ref_203","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"020501","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.125.020501","article-title":"Minimal Tradeoff and Ultimate Precision Limit of Multiparameter Quantum Magnetometry under the Parallel Scheme","volume":"125","author":"Hou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12068","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JA022565","article-title":"Spaced-based search coil magnetometers","volume":"121","author":"Hospodarsky","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3862","DOI":"10.1063\/1.125481","article-title":"Fundamental limits to magnetic-field sensitivity of flux-gate magnetic-field sensors","volume":"75","author":"Koch","year":"1999","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grosz, A., Haji-Sheikh, M.J., and Mukhopadhyay, S.C. (2017). High Sensitivity Magnetometers. High Sensitivity Magnetometers, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-34070-8"},{"key":"ref_207","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1007\/s13320-012-0067-2","article-title":"Sensitivity and performance of cavity optomechanical field sensors","volume":"2","author":"Forstner","year":"2012","journal-title":"Photonic Sens."},{"key":"ref_208","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, Y., Forstner, S., Rubinsztein-Dunlop, H., and Bowen, W.P. (2018). Modelling of cavity optomechanical magnetometers. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18051558"},{"key":"ref_209","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1038\/nphoton.2007.201","article-title":"Subpicotesla atomic magnetometry with a microfabricated vapour cell","volume":"1","author":"Shah","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Photonics"},{"key":"ref_210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1122","DOI":"10.1109\/77.919545","article-title":"Versatile high performance digital SQUID electronics","volume":"11","author":"Ludwig","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond."},{"key":"ref_211","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1504","DOI":"10.1002\/pssc.200460832","article-title":"SQUID technology for geophysical exploration","volume":"2","author":"Meyer","year":"2005","journal-title":"Phys. Status Solidi"},{"key":"ref_212","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"844","DOI":"10.1021\/nn305431c","article-title":"Low-Noise Nano Superconducting Quantum Interference Device Operating in Tesla Magnetic Fields","volume":"7","author":"Schwarz","year":"2013","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_213","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"015004","DOI":"10.1088\/0953-2048\/28\/1\/015004","article-title":"Investigation of all niobium nano-SQUIDs based on sub-micrometer cross-type Josephson junctions","volume":"28","author":"Schmelz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Supercond. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_214","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vettoliere, A., Ruggiero, B., Valentinpo, M., Silestrini, P., and Granata, C. (2019). Fine-Tuning and Optimization of Superconducting Quantum Magnetic Sensors by Thermal Annealing. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19173635"},{"key":"ref_215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2000111","DOI":"10.1002\/qute.202000111","article-title":"Integrated and Portable Magnetometer Based on Nitrogen-Vacancy Ensembles in Diamond","volume":"4","author":"Brenneis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Quantum Technol."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/16\/5568\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:46:49Z","timestamp":1760165209000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/16\/5568"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,18]]},"references-count":215,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s21165568"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21165568","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,18]]}}}