{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,9]],"date-time":"2026-05-09T17:04:02Z","timestamp":1778346242439,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,8]],"date-time":"2021-09-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1631059200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Continuous and emerging advances in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) have enabled Internet-of-Things (IoT)-to-Cloud applications to be induced by data pipelines and Edge Intelligence-based architectures. Advanced vehicular networks greatly benefit from these architectures due to the implicit functionalities that are focused on realizing the Internet of Vehicle (IoV) vision. However, IoV is susceptible to attacks, where adversaries can easily exploit existing vulnerabilities. Several attacks may succeed due to inadequate or ineffective authentication techniques. Hence, there is a timely need for hardening the authentication process through cutting-edge access control mechanisms. This paper proposes a Blockchain-based Multi-Factor authentication model that uses an embedded Digital Signature (MFBC_eDS) for vehicular clouds and Cloud-enabled IoV. Our proposed MFBC_eDS model consists of a scheme that integrates the Security Assertion Mark-up Language (SAML) to the Single Sign-On (SSO) capabilities for a connected edge to cloud ecosystem. MFBC_eDS draws an essential comparison with the baseline authentication scheme suggested by Karla and Sood. Based on the foundations of Karla and Sood\u2019s scheme, an embedded Probabilistic Polynomial-Time Algorithm (ePPTA) and an additional Hash function for the Pi generated during Karla and Sood\u2019s authentication were proposed and discussed. The preliminary analysis of the proposition shows that the approach is more suitable to counter major adversarial attacks in an IoV-centered environment based on the Dolev\u2013Yao adversarial model while satisfying aspects of the Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability (CIA) triad.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21186018","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,8]],"date-time":"2021-09-08T21:28:45Z","timestamp":1631136525000},"page":"6018","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":48,"title":["A Blockchain-Based Multi-Factor Authentication Model for a Cloud-Enabled Internet of Vehicles"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Victor R.","family":"Kebande","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Electrical & Space Engineering, Lule\u00e5 University of Technology, 97187 Lule\u00e5, Sweden"},{"name":"Department of Computer Science (DIDA), Blekinge Institute of Technology, 37179 Karlskrona, Sweden"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Feras M.","family":"Awaysheh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Computer Science, Data Systems Research Group, Tartu University, 51009 Tartu, Estonia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7355-2314","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Richard A.","family":"Ikuesan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cyber and Network Security Department, Community College Qatar, Doha 00974, Qatar"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6309-2892","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sadi A.","family":"Alawadi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Technology, Uppsala University, 75236 Uppsala, Sweden"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9520-330X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad Dahman","family":"Alshehri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, College of Computers and Information Technology, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1007\/s11761-019-00281-x","article-title":"Emerging blockchain-based applications and techniques","volume":"13","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Serv. Oriented Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kebande, V.R., Karie, N.M., and Venter, H. (2016, January 11\u201313). A generic Digital Forensic Readiness model for BYOD using honeypot technology. Proceedings of the 2016 IST-Africa Week Conference, Durban, South Africa.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISTAFRICA.2016.7530590"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alshehri, M.D., and Hussain, F.K. (2017, January 8\u201310). A centralized trust management mechanism for the internet of things (CTM-IoT). 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