{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,17]],"date-time":"2026-06-17T00:18:08Z","timestamp":1781655488086,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,11]],"date-time":"2021-09-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1631318400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Acknowledged guidelines and standards such as those formerly governing project planning in analogue aerial photogrammetry are still missing in UAV photogrammetry. The reasons are many, from a great variety of projects goals to the number of parameters involved: camera features, flight plan design, block control and georeferencing options, Structure from Motion settings, etc. Above all, perhaps, stands camera calibration with the alternative between pre- and on-the-job approaches. In this paper we present a Monte Carlo simulation study where the accuracy estimation of camera parameters and tie points\u2019 ground coordinates is evaluated as a function of various project parameters. A set of UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) synthetic photogrammetric blocks, built by varying terrain shape, surveyed area shape, block control (ground and aerial), strip type (longitudinal, cross and oblique), image observation and control data precision has been synthetically generated, overall considering 144 combinations in on-the-job self-calibration. Bias in ground coordinates (dome effect) due to inaccurate pre-calibration has also been investigated. Under the test scenario, the accuracy gap between different block configurations can be close to an order of magnitude. Oblique imaging is confirmed as key requisite in flat terrain, while ground control density is not. Aerial control by accurate camera station positions is overall more accurate and efficient than GCP in flat terrain.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21186090","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,12]],"date-time":"2021-09-12T21:48:01Z","timestamp":1631483281000},"page":"6090","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["UAV Block Geometry Design and Camera Calibration: A Simulation Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7531-638X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Riccardo","family":"Roncella","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering and Architecture, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5222-7173","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gianfranco","family":"Forlani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering and Architecture, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Fraser, P.C. (2018, January 3\u20137). Camera Calibration Considerations for UAV Photogrammetry Cameras for Drones\/UAS\/UAVs. Proceedings of the ISPRS Technical Commission II Symposium, Riva del Garda, Italy."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"855","article-title":"Close-Range Camera Calibration","volume":"37","author":"Brown","year":"1971","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1109\/JRA.1987.1087109","article-title":"A Versatile Camera Calibration Technique for High-Accuracy 3D Machine Vision Metrology Using Off-the-Shelf TV Cameras and Lenses","volume":"3","author":"Tsai","year":"1987","journal-title":"IEEE J. Robot. Autom."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1330","DOI":"10.1109\/34.888718","article-title":"A Flexible New Technique for Camera Calibration","volume":"22","author":"Zhang","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"266","article-title":"Digital Camera Calibration Methods Considerations and Comparisons digital camera calibration methods: Considerations and comparisons","volume":"36","author":"Remondino","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1139\/tcs-1982-0030","article-title":"On the Use of Nonmetric Cameras in Analytical Close-Range Photogrammetry","volume":"36","author":"Fraser","year":"1982","journal-title":"Can. Surv."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gruen, A., and Beyer, H.A. (2001). System Calibration Through Self-Calibration. Calibration and Orientation of Cameras in Computer Vision 2001, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-04567-1"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luhmann, T., Robson, S., Kyle, S., and Boehm, J. (2019). Close-Range Photogrammetry and 3D Imaging, De Gruyter.","DOI":"10.1515\/9783110607253"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1111\/0031-868X.00113","article-title":"The Development of Camera Calibration Methods and Models","volume":"16","author":"Clarke","year":"1998","journal-title":"Photogramm. Rec."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2134","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.4871","article-title":"Reducing Systematic Dome Errors in Digital Elevation Models through Better UAV Flight Design","volume":"45","author":"Chandler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cramer, M., Przybilla, H.J., and Zurhorst, A. (2017, January 4\u20137). UAV Cameras: Overview and Geometric Calibration Benchmark. Proceedings of the International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences\u2014ISPRS Archives, International Conference on Unmanned Aerial Vehicles in Geomatics, Bonn, Germany.","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLII-2-W6-85-2017"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11933","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70911933","article-title":"The Impact of the Calibration Method on the Accuracy of Point Clouds Derived Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Multi-View Stereopsis","volume":"7","author":"Harwin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.4012","article-title":"Cost-Effective Non-Metric Photogrammetry from Consumer-Grade SUAS: Implications for Direct Georeferencing of Structure from Motion Photogrammetry","volume":"42","author":"Carbonneau","year":"2017","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Radford, C.R., and Bevan, G. (2019, January 10\u201314). A Calibration Workflow for \u201cProsumer\u201d Uav Cameras. Proceedings of the International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences\u2014ISPRS Archives, ISPRS Geospatial Week 2019, Enschede, The Netherland."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1177\/0309133318788964","article-title":"Comparison of Pre- and Self-Calibrated Camera Calibration Models for UAS-Derived Nadir Imagery for a SfM Application","volume":"43","author":"Griffiths","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prog. Phys. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.3390\/s120100453","article-title":"Point Cloud Generation from Aerial Image Data Acquired by a Quadrocopter Type Micro Unmanned Aerial Vehicle and a Digital Still Camera","volume":"12","author":"Rosnell","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Forlani, G., Diotri, F., Morra Di Cella, U., and Roncella, R. (September, January 31). UAV block georeferencing and control by on-board gnss data. Proceedings of the International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences\u2014ISPRS Archives, XXIV ISPRS Congress (2020 Edition), Available online: https:\/\/www.proquest.com\/openview\/37db9d7ecadbebcaae8192398a690c8f\/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2037674."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Cramer, M., and Zhang, S. (2020, January 4\u20136). Quality Assessment of High-Resolution UAV Imagery and Products. Proceedings of the 40. Wissenschaftlich-Technische Jahrestagung der DGPF in Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Barazzetti, L., Mussio, L., Remondino, F., and Scaioni, M. (2011, January 2\u20134). Targetless camera calibration. Proceedings of the ISPRS\u2014International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Trento 2011 Workshop, Trento, Italy."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.79.4.381","article-title":"Automatic Camera Calibration in Close Range Photogrammetry","volume":"79","author":"Fraser","year":"2013","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nesbit, P.R., and Hugenholtz, C.H. (2019). Enhancing UAV-SfM 3D Model Accuracy in High-Relief Landscapes by Incorporating Oblique Images. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11030239"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1477-9730.2008.00467.x","article-title":"A Convergent Image Configuration for DEM Extraction That Minimises the Systematic Effects Caused by an Inaccurate Lens Model","volume":"23","author":"Wackrow","year":"2008","journal-title":"Photogramm. Rec."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1477-9730.2011.00623.x","article-title":"Minimising Systematic Error Surfaces in Digital Elevation Models Using Oblique Convergent Imagery","volume":"26","author":"Wackrow","year":"2011","journal-title":"Photogramm. Rec."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1413","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.3609","article-title":"Mitigating Systematic Error in Topographic Models Derived from UAV and Ground-Based Image Networks","volume":"39","author":"James","year":"2014","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, Y., Rupnik, E., Meynard, C., Thom, C., and Pierrot-Deseilligny, M. (2020). Simulation and Analysis of Photogrammetric UAV Image Blocks-Influence of Camera Calibration Error. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12010022"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taddia, Y., Stecchi, F., and Pellegrinelli, A. (2020). Coastal Mapping Using Dji Phantom 4 RTK in Post-Processing Kinematic Mode. Drones, 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/drones4020009"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stott, E., Williams, R.D., and Hoey, T.B. (2020). Ground Control Point Distribution for Accurate Kilometre-Scale Topographic Mapping Using an Rtk-Gnss Unmanned Aerial Vehicle and Sfm Photogrammetry. Drones, 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/drones4030055"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2251","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.4878","article-title":"Mitigating Systematic Error in Topographic Models for Geomorphic Change Detection: Accuracy, Precision and Considerations beyond off-Nadir Imagery","volume":"45","author":"James","year":"2020","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sanz-Ablanedo, E., Chandler, J.H., Rodr\u00edguez-P\u00e9rez, J.R., and Ord\u00f3\u00f1ez, C. (2018). Accuracy of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) and SfM Photogrammetry Survey as a Function of the Number and Location of Ground Control Points Used. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10101606"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tonkin, T.N., and Midgley, N.G. (2016). Ground-Control Networks for Image Based Surface Reconstruction: An Investigation of Optimum Survey Designs Using UAV Derived Imagery and Structure-from-Motion Photogrammetry. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8090786"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Friess, P. (1989). Empirical Accuracy of Positions Computed from Airborne GPS Data. High Precision Navigation, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-74585-0_10"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"1625","article-title":"Application of GPS for Aerial Triangulation","volume":"59","author":"Ackermann","year":"1993","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"2","article-title":"GPS supported aerial triangulation using untargeted ground control","volume":"32","author":"Mirjam","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.5623\/cig2016-102","article-title":"Spatial Accuracy of UAV-Derived Orthoimagery and Topography: Comparing Photogrammetric Models Processed with Direct Geo-Referencing and Ground Control Points","volume":"70","author":"Hugenholtz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geomatica"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.5194\/esurf-7-807-2019","article-title":"Evaluating the Potential of Post-Processing Kinematic (PPK) Georeferencing for UAV-Based Structure-from-Motion (SfM) Photogrammetry and Surface Change Detection","volume":"7","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, Y., Rupnik, E., Faure, P.H., and Pierrot-Deseilligny, M. (2018). GNSS-Assisted Integrated Sensor Orientation with Sensor Pre-Calibration for Accurate Corridor Mapping. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18092783"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Forlani, G., Diotri, F., di Cella, U.M., and Roncella, R. (2019). Indirect UAV Strip Georeferencing by On-Board GNSS Data under Poor Satellite Coverage. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11151765"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peppa, M.V., Hall, J., Goodyear, J., and Mills, J.P. (2019, January 10\u201314). Photogrammetric Assessment and Comparison of Dji Phantom 4 pro and Phantom 4 Rtk Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems. Proceedings of the International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences\u2014ISPRS Archives, ISPRS Geospatial Week 2019, Enschede, The Netherland.","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLII-2-W13-503-2019"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1769","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.4125","article-title":"3-D Uncertainty-Based Topographic Change Detection with Structure-from-Motion Photogrammetry: Precision Maps for Ground Control and Directly Georeferenced Surveys","volume":"42","author":"James","year":"2017","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Benassi, F., Dall\u2019Asta, E., Diotri, F., Forlani, G., Cella, U.M., Roncella, R., and Santise, M. (2017). Testing Accuracy and Repeatability of UAV Blocks Oriented with Gnss-Supported Aerial Triangulation. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9020172"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3017","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JF002289","article-title":"Straightforward Reconstruction of 3D Surfaces and Topography with a Camera: Accuracy and Geoscience Application","volume":"117","author":"James","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dall\u2019Asta, E., Delaloye, R., Diotri, F., Forlani, G., Fornari, M., di Cella, U.M., Pogliotti, P., Roncella, R., and Santise, M. (October, January 28). Use of Uas in a High Mountain Landscape: The Case of Gran Sommetta Rock Glacier (AO). Proceedings of the International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences\u2014ISPRS Archives, ISPRS Geospatial Week 2015, La Grande Motte, France.","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsarchives-XL-3-W3-391-2015"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLIII-B2-2021-53-2021","article-title":"A monte carlo simulation study on the dome effect","volume":"43","author":"Roncella","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2016.11.021","article-title":"Optimising UAV Topographic Surveys Processed with Structure-from-Motion: Ground Control Quality, Quantity and Bundle Adjustment","volume":"280","author":"James","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Sturm, P. (1997, January 17\u201319). Critical Motion Sequences for Monocular Self-Calibration and Uncalibrated Euclidean Reconstruction. Proceedings of the IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, San Juan, PR, USA."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/18\/6090\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:00:52Z","timestamp":1760166052000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/18\/6090"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,11]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s21186090"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21186090","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,11]]}}}