{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]],"date-time":"2026-02-25T07:16:28Z","timestamp":1772003788316,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,11]],"date-time":"2021-09-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1631318400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100001774","name":"New Jersey Health Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PC 77-21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PC 77-21"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100001774","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this paper, we propose and experimentally demonstrate a three-dimensional (3D) microscopic system that reconstructs a 3D image based on structured light illumination. The spatial pattern of the structured light changes according to the profile of the object, and by measuring the change, a 3D image of the object is reconstructed. The structured light is generated with a digital micro-mirror device (DMD), which controls the structured light pattern to change in a kHz rate and enables the system to record the 3D information in real time. The working distance of the imaging system is 9 cm at a resolution of 20 \u03bcm. The resolution, working distance, and real-time 3D imaging enable the system to be applied in bridge and road crack examinations, and structure fault detection of transportation infrastructures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21186097","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,12]],"date-time":"2021-09-12T21:48:01Z","timestamp":1631483281000},"page":"6097","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Three-Dimensional Microscopic Image Reconstruction Based on Structured Light Illumination"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Taichu","family":"Shi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rowan University, 201 Mullica Hill Rd., Glassboro, NJ 08028, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0530-8640","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yang","family":"Qi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rowan University, 201 Mullica Hill Rd., Glassboro, NJ 08028, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5382-1003","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cheng","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rowan University, 201 Mullica Hill Rd., Glassboro, NJ 08028, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ying","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rowan University, 201 Mullica Hill Rd., Glassboro, NJ 08028, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ben","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rowan University, 201 Mullica Hill Rd., Glassboro, NJ 08028, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Q., Zhang, D., Zou, Q., and Lin, H. (September, January 28). 3D laser imaging and sparse points grouping for pavement crack detection. Proceedings of the 2017 25th European Signal Processing Conference (EUSIPCO), Kos, Greece.","DOI":"10.23919\/EUSIPCO.2017.8081567"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1109\/TASE.2014.2354314","article-title":"Automated Crack Detection on Concrete Bridges","volume":"13","author":"Prasanna","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Autom. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1111\/mice.12501","article-title":"Image-based crack assessment of bridge piers using unmanned aerial vehicles and three-dimensional scene reconstruction","volume":"35","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Aided Civ. Inf."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1387","DOI":"10.1002\/stc.1655","article-title":"Crack detection and characterization techniques\u2014An overview","volume":"21","author":"Yao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Struct. Control Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/AMM.771.200","article-title":"Microscopic Surface Measurement Using Phase Shifting Method","volume":"771","author":"Suprijanto","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Mech. Mater."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moreno, D., and Taubin, G. (2012, January 13\u201315). Simple, Accurate, and Robust Projector-Camera Calibration. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on 3D Imaging, Modeling, Processing, Visualization & Transmission, Zurich, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1109\/3DIMPVT.2012.77"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, B., Ozdemir, S., Tang, G., Liao, C., and Ling, H. (2018, January 16\u201320). A Single-shot-per-pose Camera-Projector Calibration System for Imperfect Planar Targets. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality Adjunct (ISMAR-Adjunct), Munich, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISMAR-Adjunct.2018.00023"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.1109\/TASE.2020.2994223","article-title":"A Fast and Flexible Projector-Camera Calibration System","volume":"18","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Autom. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1117\/12.248477","article-title":"Digital Light Processing and MEMS: Reflecting the digital display needs of the networked society","volume":"2783","author":"Hornbeck","year":"1996","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"(2009, May 14). Projector-Camera Calibration Toolbox. Available online: http:\/\/code.google.com\/p\/procamcalib."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmpb.2009.11.012","article-title":"Web-based interactive 2D\/3D medical image processing and visualization software","volume":"98","author":"Mahmoudi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Comput. Methods Programs Biomed."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1007\/s12541-012-0017-3","article-title":"Projector calibration for 3D scanning using virtual target images","volume":"13","author":"Anwar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1117\/12.165470","article-title":"New algorithm on phase-shifting interferometry: The overlapping averaging 4-frame algorithm","volume":"2003","author":"Zhu","year":"1993","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, Y., Chen, L., Zhu, R., and Yao, G. (2005). Algorithm study of the measurement of the radius of curvature of fiber optic connector end faces. Optical Design and Testing II, SPIE.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.576665"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kimura, M., Mochimaru, M., and Kanade, T. (2007, January 17\u201322). Projector Calibration using Arbitrary Planes and Calibrated Camera. Proceedings of the 2007 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Minneapolis, MN, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2007.383477"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1109\/TCI.2017.2652844","article-title":"Simultaneous Projector-Camera Self-Calibration for Three-Dimensional Reconstruction and Projection Mapping","volume":"3","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Comput. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1330","DOI":"10.1109\/34.888718","article-title":"A flexible new technique for camera calibration","volume":"22","author":"Zhang","year":"2000","journal-title":"Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell. IEEE Trans."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"772","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.57.000772","article-title":"Dynamic microscopic 3d shape measurement based on marker-embedded fourier transform profilometry","volume":"57","author":"Hu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, B., and Tang, Y. (2014, January 5\u20138). Fast 3D reconstruction using one-shot spatial structured light. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE International Conference on Systems, San Diego, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/SMC.2014.6973962"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, X., Zhang, Z., and Cheng, W. (2015, January 15\u201317). Iterative projector calibration using multi-frequency phase-shifting method. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE 7th International Conference on Cybernetics and Intelligent Systems (CIS) and IEEE Conference on Robotics, Automation and Mechatronics (RAM), Siem Reap, Cambodia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCIS.2015.7274538"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neucom.2015.07.137","article-title":"Hierarchical line matching based on Line\u2013Junction\u2013Line structure descriptor and local homography estimation","volume":"184","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurocomputing"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"(2009, November 13). Thorlabs USAF 1951 Test Target. Available online: https:\/\/www.thorlabs.com\/thorproduct.cfm?partnumber=R3L3S1P."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1111\/mice.12042","article-title":"Road Crack Detection Using Visual Features Extracted by Gabor Filters","volume":"29","author":"Zalama","year":"2014","journal-title":"Comput. -Aided Civ. Infrastruct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, L., Yang, F., Daniel Zhang, Y., and Zhu, Y.J. (2016, January 25\u201328). Road crack detection using deep convolutional neural network. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE International Conference on Image Processing, Phoenix, AZ, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIP.2016.7533052"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"33","article-title":"Optical imaging for low-cost structural measurements","volume":"167","author":"McCormick","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. -Bridge Eng."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Medina, R., Llamas, J., Zalama, E., and G\u00f3mez-Garc\u00eda-Bermejo, J. (2014, January 27\u201330). Enhanced automatic detection of road surface cracks by combining 2D\/3D image processing techniques. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE International Conference on Image Processing, Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIP.2014.7025156"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"808","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2006.12.007","article-title":"3D reconstruction of road surfaces using an integrated multi-sensory approach","volume":"45","author":"Yu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Opt. Lasers Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compgeo.2018.06.002","article-title":"Internal stress distribution and cracking around flaws and openings of rock block under uniaxial compression: A particle mechanics approach","volume":"102","author":"Fan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Computers and Geotechnics"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jappgeo.2012.12.010","article-title":"A three dimensional approach for tracking cracks in bridges using GPR","volume":"97","author":"Benedetto","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Appl. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2017.01.019","article-title":"Recognition and evaluation of bridge cracks with modified active contour model and greedy search-based support vector machine","volume":"78","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2018.04.003","article-title":"Deterioration of cracks in onshore wind turbine foundations","volume":"167","author":"McAlorum","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1007\/s00419-015-1091-7","article-title":"A review of Finite Fracture Mechanics: Crack initiation at singular and non-singular stress raisers","volume":"86","author":"Weigraeber","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arch. Appl. Mech."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijengsci.2015.09.001","article-title":"Effect of asperities on stress dependency of elastic properties of cracked rocks","volume":"98","author":"Glubokovskikh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1111\/ffe.12930","article-title":"Global-local fatigue assessment of an ancient riveted metallic bridge based on submodelling of the critical detail","volume":"42","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Fatigue Fract. Eng. Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2018.11.039","article-title":"Fatigue life assessment of FRP cable for long-span cable-stayed bridge","volume":"210","author":"Feng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/18\/6097\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:01:09Z","timestamp":1760166069000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/18\/6097"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,11]]},"references-count":35,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s21186097"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21186097","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,11]]}}}