{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T05:28:25Z","timestamp":1787030905115,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":62,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,26]],"date-time":"2021-09-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1632614400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100007637","name":"Departamento Administrativo de Ciencia, Tecnolog\u00eda e Innovaci\u00f3n (COLCIENCIAS)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["801-2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["801-2017"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100007637","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100007637","name":"Departamento Administrativo de Ciencia, Tecnolog\u00eda e Innovaci\u00f3n (COLCIENCIAS)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["845-2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["845-2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100007637","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Brain\u2013computer interface (BCI) remains an emerging tool that seeks to improve the patient interaction with the therapeutic mechanisms and to generate neuroplasticity progressively through neuromotor abilities. Motor imagery (MI) analysis is the most used paradigm based on the motor cortex\u2019s electrical activity to detect movement intention. It has been shown that motor imagery mental practice with movement-associated stimuli may offer an effective strategy to facilitate motor recovery in brain injury patients. In this sense, this study aims to present the BCI associated with visual and haptic stimuli to facilitate MI generation and control the T-FLEX ankle exoskeleton. To achieve this, five post-stroke patients (55\u201363 years) were subjected to three different strategies using T-FLEX: stationary therapy (ST) without motor imagination, motor imagination with visual stimulation (MIV), and motor imagination with visual-haptic inducement (MIVH). The quantitative characterization of both BCI stimuli strategies was made through the motor imagery accuracy rate, the electroencephalographic (EEG) analysis during the MI active periods, the statistical analysis, and a subjective patient\u2019s perception. The preliminary results demonstrated the viability of the BCI-controlled ankle exoskeleton system with the beta rebound, in terms of patient\u2019s performance during MI active periods and satisfaction outcomes. Accuracy differences employing haptic stimulus were detected with an average of 68% compared with the 50.7% over only visual stimulus. However, the power spectral density (PSD) did not present changes in prominent activation of the MI band but presented significant variations in terms of laterality. In this way, visual and haptic stimuli improved the subject\u2019s MI accuracy but did not generate differential brain activity over the affected hemisphere. Hence, long-term sessions with a more extensive sample and a more robust algorithm should be carried out to evaluate the impact of the proposed system on neuronal and motor evolution after stroke.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21196431","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,27]],"date-time":"2021-09-27T22:16:38Z","timestamp":1632780998000},"page":"6431","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["BCI-Based Control for Ankle Exoskeleton T-FLEX: Comparison of Visual and Haptic Stimuli with Stroke Survivors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Patricio","family":"Barria","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Magallanes, Punta Arenas 6210427, Chile"},{"name":"Club de Leones Cruz del Sur Rehabilitation Center, Punta Arenas 6210133, Chile"},{"name":"Brain-Machine Interface Systems Lab, Systems Engineering and Automation Department, Miguel Hern\u00e1ndez University of Elche UMH, 03202 Elche, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8724-518X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Angie","family":"Pino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Colombian School of Engineering Julio Garavito, Bogot\u00e1 111166, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicol\u00e1s","family":"Tovar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Colombian School of Engineering Julio Garavito, Bogot\u00e1 111166, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3772-2272","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel","family":"Gomez-Vargas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Colombian School of Engineering Julio Garavito, Bogot\u00e1 111166, Colombia"},{"name":"Institute of Automatics, National University of San Juan, San Juan 5400, Argentina"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4195-675X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Karim","family":"Baleta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Club de Leones Cruz del Sur Rehabilitation Center, Punta Arenas 6210133, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9657-5076","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Camilo A. R.","family":"D\u00edaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate Program in Electrical Engineering, Federal University of Espirito Santo, Vitoria 29075-910, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6595-5383","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcela","family":"M\u00fanera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Colombian School of Engineering Julio Garavito, Bogot\u00e1 111166, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6942-865X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlos A.","family":"Cifuentes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Colombian School of Engineering Julio Garavito, Bogot\u00e1 111166, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"139","article-title":"Brain-computer interface in stroke rehabilitation","volume":"7","author":"Ang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Comput. 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