{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,23]],"date-time":"2026-07-23T15:52:41Z","timestamp":1784821961044,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":20,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,15]],"date-time":"2021-10-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1634256000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs) are beneficial for motion tracking as, in contrast to most optical motion capture systems, IMU systems do not require a dedicated lab. However, IMUs are affected by electromagnetic noise and may exhibit drift over time; it is therefore common practice to compare their performance to another system of high accuracy before use. The 3-Space IMUs have only been validated in two previous studies with limited testing protocols. This study utilized an IRB 2600 industrial robot to evaluate the performance of the IMUs for the three sensor fusion methods provided in the 3-Space software. Testing consisted of programmed motion sequences including 360\u00b0 rotations and linear translations of 800 mm in opposite directions for each axis at three different velocities, as well as static trials. The magnetometer was disabled to assess the accuracy of the IMUs in an environment containing electromagnetic noise. The Root-Mean-Square Error (RMSE) of the sensor orientation ranged between 0.2\u00b0 and 12.5\u00b0 across trials; average drift was 0.4\u00b0. The performance of the three filters was determined to be comparable. This study demonstrates that the 3-Space sensors may be utilized in an environment containing metal or electromagnetic noise with a RMSE below 10\u00b0 in most cases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21206858","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,17]],"date-time":"2021-10-17T23:25:15Z","timestamp":1634513115000},"page":"6858","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Validation of 3-Space Wireless Inertial Measurement Units Using an Industrial Robot"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2023-8601","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jaime","family":"Hislop","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering and Product Design Engineering, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, VIC 3122, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3047-6811","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mats","family":"Isaksson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering and Product Design Engineering, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, VIC 3122, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John","family":"McCormick","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Transformative Media Technologies, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, VIC 3122, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chris","family":"Hensman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgery, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3168, Australia"},{"name":"Department of Surgery, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia"},{"name":"LapSurgery Australia, Dandenong North, VIC 3175, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marin, J., Blanco, T., and Marin, J.J. (2017). Octopus: A design methodology for motion capture wearables. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17081875"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1007\/s11517-016-1537-2","article-title":"Validation of inertial measurement units with an optoelectronic system for whole-body motion analysis","volume":"55","author":"Mecheri","year":"2017","journal-title":"Med. Biol. Eng. Comput."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Marcus, A. (2015). PostureMonitor: Real-time IMU wearable technology to foster poise and health. Design, User Experience, and Usability: Interactive Experience Design, Springer International Publishing."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2016.11.007","article-title":"Wearable IMU-based real-time motion warning system for construction workers\u2019 musculoskeletal disorders prevention","volume":"74","author":"Yan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Williams, B., Ryu, J., Bourdon, P., Graham-Smith, P., and Sinclair, P. (2016, January 18\u201322). Reliability and Validation of an Inertial Sensor Used to Measure Orientation Angle. Proceedings of the 34th International Conference on Biomechanics in Sport, Tsukuba, Japan."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2017.01.024","article-title":"A novel functional calibration method for real-time elbow joint angles estimation with magnetic-inertial sensors","volume":"54","author":"Ligorio","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2008.12.004","article-title":"Magnetic distortion in motion labs, implications for validating inertial magnetic sensors","volume":"29","author":"Veeger","year":"2009","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Madgwick, S.O.H., Harrison, A.J.L., and Vaidyanathan, R. (July, January 29). Estimation of IMU and MARG orientation using a gradient descent algorithm. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics, Zurich, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICORR.2011.5975346"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"020002","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5018520","article-title":"Comparison of complementary and Kalman filter based data fusion for attitude heading reference system","volume":"1919","author":"Islam","year":"2017","journal-title":"AIP Conf. Proc."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maybeck, P.S. (1990). The Kalman filter: An introduction to concepts. Autonomous Robot Vehicles, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4613-8997-2_15"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2004.11.021","article-title":"The accuracy of measuring the kinematics of rising from a chair with accelerometers and gyroscopes","volume":"39","author":"Boonstra","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jss.2011.08.004","article-title":"Surgeons\u2019 static posture and movement repetitions in open and laparoscopic surgery","volume":"172","author":"Szeto","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Surg. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sers, R., Forrester, S., Zecca, M., Ward, S., and Moss, E. (2021). Objective assessment of surgeon kinematics during simulated laparoscopic surgery: A preliminary evaluation of the effect of high body mass index models. Int. J. Comput. Assist. Radiol. Surg.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11548-021-02455-5"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parent, R. (2012). Chapter 2\u2014Technical Background. Computer Animation, Morgan Kaufmann. [3rd ed.].","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-415842-9.00002-2"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Yost Labs (2017). 3-Space Sensor User\u2019s Manual, Yost Labs. Technical Report."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"N63","DOI":"10.1088\/0967-3334\/34\/8\/N63","article-title":"Concurrent validation of Xsens MVN measurement of lower limb joint angular kinematics","volume":"34","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Physiol. Meas."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109520","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2019.109520","article-title":"Validation of a low-cost inertial motion capture system for whole-body motion analysis","volume":"99","author":"Mecheri","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mihcin, S., Kose, H., Cizmeciogullari, S., Ciklacandir, S., Kocak, M., Tosun, A., and Akan, A. (2019, January 26\u201328). Investigation of wearable motion capture system towards biomechanical modelling. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Symposium on Medical Measurements and Applications (MeMeA), Istanbul, Turkey.","DOI":"10.1109\/MeMeA.2019.8802208"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Z\u00fcgner, R., Tranberg, R., Timperley, J., Hodgins, D., Mohaddes, M., and K\u00e4rrholm, J. (2019). Validation of inertial measurement units with optical tracking system in patients operated with total hip arthroplasty. BMC Musculoskelet. Disord., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12891-019-2416-4"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11517-009-0544-y","article-title":"First in vivo assessment of \u201cOutwalk\u201d: A novel protocol for clinical gait analysis based on inertial and magnetic sensors","volume":"48","author":"Ferrari","year":"2009","journal-title":"Med. Biol. Eng. Comput."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/20\/6858\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:15:24Z","timestamp":1760166924000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/20\/6858"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,15]]},"references-count":20,"journal-issue":{"issue":"20","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s21206858"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21206858","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,15]]}}}