{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T02:28:31Z","timestamp":1760236111022,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,21]],"date-time":"2021-10-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1634774400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Tufa barrages play an important role in fluviatile tufa ecosystems and sedimentary records. Quantifying the height of tufa barrage is significant for understanding the evolution and development of the Holocene tufa barrage systems. However, for submerged tufa barrages, there is no low-cost non-contact method to retrieve barrage height. Generally, it is difficult to recognize small tufa barrages by means of remotely sensed satellite data, but the combination of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) and Structure-from-Motion (SfM) photogrammetry makes it possible. In this study, we used a fixed-wing UAV and a consumer-grade camera to acquire images of the submerged tufa barrage in Lying Dragon Lake, Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserve, China, and estimated the height of the tufa barrage through UAV-based photogrammetric bathymetry. On this foundation, the relationship between barrage height and its spectrum was established through band ratio analysis using UAV-derived geometric bathymetry and digital orthoimages, which provided an alternative strategy to characterize the height of submerged tufa barrages. However, the spectral characteristics of submerged tufa barrages will oscillate with changes in the environmental conditions. In future research, we will consider using a dedicated aquatic multispectral camera to improve the experimentation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21216987","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,21]],"date-time":"2021-10-21T23:27:39Z","timestamp":1634858859000},"page":"6987","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Modeling the Relationships between the Height and Spectrum of Submerged Tufa Barrage Using UAV-Derived Geometric Bathymetry and Digital Orthoimages"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Jinchen","family":"He","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Chongqing Jinfo Mountain Karst Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, School of Geographical Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China"},{"name":"Chongqing Engineering Research Center for Remote Sensing Big Data Application, School of Geographical Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jiayuan","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chongqing Jinfo Mountain Karst Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, School of Geographical Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China"},{"name":"Chongqing Engineering Research Center for Remote Sensing Big Data Application, School of Geographical Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yanhao","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chongqing Jinfo Mountain Karst Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, School of Geographical Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China"},{"name":"Chongqing Engineering Research Center for Remote Sensing Big Data Application, School of Geographical Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"57","article-title":"The status quo and prospect of research on travertine precipitation mechanism","volume":"25","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Carsologica Sin."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/sed.12075","article-title":"Decoding tufa and travertine (fresh water carbonates) in the sedimentary record: The state of the art","volume":"61","author":"Capezzuoli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sedimentology"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/0037-0738(90)90124-C","article-title":"Classification and environmental models of cool freshwater tufas","volume":"68","author":"Pedley","year":"1990","journal-title":"Sediment. Geol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/S0037-0738(03)00151-9","article-title":"Are current models of tufa sedimentary environments applicable to tropical systems? A case study from the Gregory River","volume":"162","author":"Carthew","year":"2003","journal-title":"Sediment. Geol."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Pentecost, A. (2010). Travertine, Springer."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epsl.2007.01.033","article-title":"The dynamics of travertine dams","volume":"256","author":"Hammer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsoft.2013.09.001","article-title":"Bathymetry fusion using multiple-point geostatistics: Novelty and challenges in representing non-stationary bedforms","volume":"50","author":"Jha","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Modell. Softw."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2015.10.004","article-title":"Remote sensing platforms and sensors: A survey","volume":"115","author":"Toth","year":"2016","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1007\/s13131-016-0797-x","article-title":"Mapping the bathymetry of shallow coastal water using single-frame fine-resolution optical remote sensing imagery","volume":"35","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Oceanol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2018.09.022","article-title":"Multiple Optimal Depth Predictors Analysis (MODPA) for river bathymetry: Findings from spectroradiometry, simulations, and satellite imagery","volume":"218","author":"Vitti","year":"2018","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2012.10.016","article-title":"Basin-scale and travertine dam-scale controls on fluvial travertine, Jiuzhaigou, southwestern China","volume":"180\u2013181","author":"Florsheim","year":"2013","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pgeola.2016.10.004","article-title":"Characterizing tufa barrages in relation to channel bed morphology in a small karstic river by airborne LiDAR topo-bathymetry","volume":"127","author":"Profe","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. Geol. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alvarez, L., Moreno, H., Segales, A., Pham, T., Pillar-Little, E., and Chilson, P. (2018). Merging unmanned aerial systems (UAS) imagery and echo soundings with an adaptive sampling technique for bathymetric surveys. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10091362"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2014.02.013","article-title":"Unmanned aerial systems for photogrammetry and remote sensing: A review","volume":"92","author":"Colomina","year":"2014","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jim\u00e9nez L\u00f3pez, J., and Mulero-P\u00e1zm\u00e1ny, M. (2019). Drones for conservation in protected areas: Present and future. Drones, 3.","DOI":"10.3390\/drones3010010"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvolgeores.2020.107143","article-title":"Low-cost UAV applications in dynamic tropical volcanic landforms","volume":"410","author":"Alvarado","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2012.08.021","article-title":"\u2018Structure-from-Motion\u2019 photogrammetry: A low-cost, effective tool for geoscience applications","volume":"179","author":"Westoby","year":"2012","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carrivick, J.L., Smith, M.W., and Quincey, D.J. (2016). Structure from Motion in the Geosciences, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118895818"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"428","article-title":"Monitoring river morphology & bank erosion using UAV imagery\u2014A case study of the river Bu\u00ebch, Hautes-Alpes, France","volume":"73","author":"Hemmelder","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2016.03.011","article-title":"UAVs for coastal surveying","volume":"114","author":"Turner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ocecoaman.2018.04.007","article-title":"High-resolution monitoring of beach topography and its change using unmanned aerial vehicle imagery","volume":"160","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ocean Coast. Manag."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, J., Wang, M., Ma, M., and Lin, Y. (2018). Aboveground tree biomass estimation of sparse subalpine coniferous forest with UAV oblique photography. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10111849"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.limno.2018.07.001","article-title":"Modelling heights of sparse aquatic reed (Phragmites australis) using Structure from Motion point clouds derived from Rotary- and Fixed-Wing Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) data","volume":"72","author":"Meneses","year":"2018","journal-title":"Limnologica"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.3366","article-title":"Topographic structure from motion: A new development in photogrammetric measurement","volume":"38","author":"Fonstad","year":"2013","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.3613","article-title":"Quantifying submerged fluvial topography using hyperspatial resolution UAS imagery and structure from motion photogrammetry","volume":"40","author":"Woodget","year":"2015","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2019.05.016","article-title":"Retrieving shallow stream bathymetry from UAV-assisted RGB imagery using a geospatial regression method","volume":"341","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rossi, L., Mammi, I., and Pelliccia, F. (2020). UAV-Derived Multispectral Bathymetry. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12233897"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2020.09.002","article-title":"Combined geometric-radiometric and neural network approach to shallow bathymetric mapping with UAS imagery","volume":"169","author":"Slocum","year":"2020","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"183","article-title":"Geomorphology and Quaternary geology in the Jiuzhaigou Valley","volume":"3","author":"Guo","year":"2000","journal-title":"Acta Geol. Sichuan"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.quaint.2019.04.005","article-title":"Creation of river terrain data using region growing method based on point cloud data from UAV photography","volume":"519","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Quat. Int."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1413","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.3609","article-title":"Mitigating systematic error in topographic models derived from UAV and ground-based image networks","volume":"39","author":"James","year":"2014","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1007\/s40725-019-00094-3","article-title":"Structure from motion photogrammetry in forestry: A review","volume":"5","author":"Iglhaut","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. For. Rep."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2021, June 29). Jiuzhai Admin. Available online: https:\/\/www.jiuzhai.com\/about\/scenic-spot\/eature-spot."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"1271","article-title":"Remote sensing of clear-water, shallow, gravel-bed rivers using digital photogrammetry","volume":"67","author":"Westaway","year":"2001","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107832","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2021.107832","article-title":"Mapping topo-bathymetry of transparent tufa lakes using UAV-based photogrammetry and RGB imagery","volume":"389","author":"He","year":"2021","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112091","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2020.112091","article-title":"SMART-SDB: Sample-specific multiple band ratio technique for satellite-derived bathymetry","volume":"251","author":"Bovolo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1177\/0309133309105657","article-title":"Bathymetric mapping by means of remote sensing: Methods, accuracy and limitations","volume":"33","author":"Gao","year":"2009","journal-title":"Prog. Phys. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.1787","article-title":"Spectrally based remote sensing of river bathymetry","volume":"34","author":"Legleiter","year":"2009","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/0031-0182(95)00080-1","article-title":"Does climate control the morphological fabric of freshwater carbonates? A comparative study of Holocene barrage tufas from Spain and Britai","volume":"121","author":"Pedley","year":"1996","journal-title":"Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpetgeo.2017.03.014","article-title":"Facies character and depositional architecture of hydrothermal travertine slope aprons (Pleistocene, Acquasanta Terme, Central Italy)","volume":"87","author":"Capezzuoli","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mar. Pet. Geol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.2110\/jsr.2017.14","article-title":"Seasonal pattern in the high-elevation fluvial travertine from the Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserve, Sichuan, southwestern China","volume":"87","author":"Lugli","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Sediment. Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, L. (2017). Factors affecting tufa degradation in Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserve, Sichuan, China. Water, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/w9090702"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2005.02.002","article-title":"Temperate and semi-arid tufas in the Pleistocene to Recent fluvial barrage system in the Mediterranean area: The Ruidera Lakes Natural Park (Central Spain)","volume":"69","author":"Pedley","year":"2005","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104834","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2020.104834","article-title":"Early and mid-Holocene hydroclimate change recorded in tufa deposits in the Jiuzhaigou gully, eastern Tibetan Plateau","volume":"196","author":"Guo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2251","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2006.872909","article-title":"Multispectral bathymetry using a simple physically based algorithm","volume":"44","author":"Lyzenga","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"92","article-title":"Progress in water depth mapping from visible remote sensing data","volume":"26","author":"Wang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mar. Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2004.07.019","article-title":"Passive optical remote sensing of river channel morphology and in-stream habitat: Physical basis and feasibility","volume":"93","author":"Legleiter","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.2003.48.1_part_2.0547","article-title":"Determination of water depth with high-resolution satellite imagery over variable bottom types","volume":"48","author":"Stumpf","year":"2003","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1705","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.1595","article-title":"Very high spatial resolution imagery for channel bathymetry and topography from an unmanned mapping controlled platform","volume":"32","author":"Lejot","year":"2007","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, X., Zhang, M., Xiao, W., Du, J., Sheng, M., Zhu, D., Plenkovi\u0107-Moraj, A., and Sun, G. (2020). The Color Formation Mechanism of the Blue Karst Lakes in Jiuzhaigou Nature Reserve, Sichuan, China. Water, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/w12030771"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/21\/6987\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:20:23Z","timestamp":1760167223000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/21\/6987"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,21]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s21216987"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21216987","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,21]]}}}