{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T19:40:11Z","timestamp":1790624411262,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,29]],"date-time":"2021-10-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1635465600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Key R&amp;D Program of China","award":["2017YFC0403202"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017YFC0403202"]}]},{"name":"Water Conservancy Science and Technology Program of Shaanxi Province of China","award":["2021slkj-7"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021slkj-7"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Accurate measurement of soil infiltration lines is very important for agricultural irrigation systems. It can help monitor the irrigation of soil to control irrigation amounts and promote crop growth. The soil infiltration line is a complex dynamic boundary and is difficult to model accurately, leading to estimation deviation. A traditional TDR (time domain reflectometry) method is used in soil infiltration line measurement, but it lacks good applicability and accuracy. In this paper, we proposed a method\u2014VFTT (The vector network analyzer\u2019s frequency domain signals are converted to the time domain)\u2014by the time domain to frequency domain conversion principle to improve the accuracy of soil infiltration line measurement. The experiment results show that the measurement method of soil infiltration line based on VFTT has high accuracy and robustness. After fitting the measured value with the actual one, R2 reaching more than 0.98 can effectively measure the position of the soil infiltration line.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21217201","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,1]],"date-time":"2021-11-01T22:24:22Z","timestamp":1635805462000},"page":"7201","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["A Novel Method for the Accurate Measurement of Soil Infiltration Line by Portable Vector Network Analyzer"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6493-3884","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaobin","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Agricultural Soil and Water Engineering in Arid and Semi-Arid Areas, Ministry of Education, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712100, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8766-929X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhengguang","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Agricultural Soil and Water Engineering in Arid and Semi-Arid Areas, Ministry of Education, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712100, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lei","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Agricultural Soil and Water Engineering in Arid and Semi-Arid Areas, Ministry of Education, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712100, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hao","family":"Fan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Agricultural Soil and Water Engineering in Arid and Semi-Arid Areas, Ministry of Education, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712100, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xingyu","family":"Liang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Agricultural Soil and Water Engineering in Arid and Semi-Arid Areas, Ministry of Education, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712100, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jinghui","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Agricultural Soil and Water Engineering in Arid and Semi-Arid Areas, Ministry of Education, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712100, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"805","article-title":"A Conceptual Model for the Drying and Wetting of Soil","volume":"2","author":"Toll","year":"1995","journal-title":"Proc. Int. Conf. Unsaturated Soils"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8293","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-86862-3","article-title":"Spatial Variability of Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity and Its Links with Other Soil Properties at the Regional Scale","volume":"11","author":"Usowicz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10048","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-89246-9","article-title":"Co-Incorporation of Manure and Inorganic Fertilizer Improves Leaf Physiological Traits, Rice Production and Soil Functionality in a Paddy Field","volume":"11","author":"Iqbal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agee.2017.02.028","article-title":"Modelling Soil Water Balance and Root Water Uptake in Cotton Grown under Different Soil Conservation Practices in the Indo-Gangetic Plain","volume":"240","author":"Aggarwal","year":"2017","journal-title":"Agric. Ecosyst. Environ."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106538","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2020.106538","article-title":"Cotton Irrigation Scheduling Improvements Using Wetting Front Detectors in Uzbekistan","volume":"244","author":"Ibragimov","year":"2021","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105979","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2019.105979","article-title":"Determining Threshold Values for Root-Soil Water Weighted Plant Water Deficit Index Based Smart Irrigation","volume":"230","author":"Shi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104457","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2020.104457","article-title":"Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Soil Moisture for Surfaces with a Change in Land Use in the Semi-Arid Region of Brazil","volume":"188","author":"Queiroz","year":"2020","journal-title":"CATENA"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2018.01.004","article-title":"Quantitative Analysis of Wetting Front Instabilities in Soil Caused by Treated Waste Water Irrigation","volume":"319","author":"Leuther","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"766","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2018.06.048","article-title":"Hydroclimatic Response of Evapotranspiration Partitioning to Prolonged Droughts in Semiarid Grassland","volume":"563","author":"Han","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2011.07.036","article-title":"Evapotranspiration and Its Partitioning in an Irrigated Winter Wheat Field: A Combined Isotopic and Micrometeorologic Approach","volume":"408","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2020.108248","article-title":"Assessing Future Drought Risks and Wheat Yield Losses in England","volume":"297","author":"Clarke","year":"2021","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124652","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2020.124652","article-title":"Responses of Terrestrial Water Storage to Climate Variation in the Tibetan Plateau","volume":"584","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1183","DOI":"10.1080\/02626667.2018.1481962","article-title":"Artificial Recharge Efficiency Assessment by Soil Water Balance and Modelling Approaches in a Multi-Layered Vadose Zone in a Dry Region","volume":"63","author":"Pakparvar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hydrol. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.1071\/SR05005","article-title":"Irrigation Controlled by a Wetting Front Detector: Field Evaluation under Sprinkler Irrigation","volume":"43","author":"Stirzaker","year":"2005","journal-title":"Soil Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1007\/s00271-003-0083-5","article-title":"When to Turn the Water Off: Scheduling Micro-Irrigation with a Wetting Front Detector","volume":"22","author":"Stirzaker","year":"2003","journal-title":"Irrig. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2021.126254","article-title":"An Internet-Based Smart Irrigation Approach for Limiting Phosphorus Release from Organic Fertilizer-Amended Paddy Soil","volume":"293","author":"Eltohamy","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2018.04.014","article-title":"Modelling Soil Water Dynamics and Crop Water Use in a Soybean-Wheat Rotation under Chisel Tillage in a Sandy Clay Loam Soil","volume":"327","author":"Ahmad","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106896","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2021.106896","article-title":"Large-Scale Monitoring of Soil Moisture Using Temperature Vegetation Quantitative Index (Tvqi) and Exponential Filtering: A Case Study in Beijing","volume":"252","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2018.07.027","article-title":"Profile Distribution of Soil Moisture in the Gully on the Northern Loess Plateau, China","volume":"171","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"CATENA"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106573","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2020.106573","article-title":"Variation of Soil Moisture and Fine Roots Distribution Adopts Rainwater Collection, Infiltration Promoting and Soil Anti-Seepage System (Rcip-Sa) in Hilly Apple Orchard on the Loess Plateau of China","volume":"244","author":"Guo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2019.05.037","article-title":"Estimation of Root Water Uptake and Soil Hydraulic Parameters from Root Zone Soil Moisture and Deep Percolation","volume":"222","author":"Sonkar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124792","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2020.124792","article-title":"Simulating Wetting Front Dimensions of Drip Irrigation Systems: Multi Criteria Assessment of Soft Computing Models","volume":"585","author":"Shiri","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1402","DOI":"10.1134\/S1064229319110048","article-title":"Numerical Methods for Estimating the Soil Hydraulic Properties and the Wetting Front in the Soil","volume":"52","author":"Hachimi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eurasian Soil Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2321","DOI":"10.1029\/1999WR900123","article-title":"Theoretical Model of a Multisection Time Domain Reflectometry Measurement System","volume":"35","author":"Feng","year":"1999","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.2136\/sssaj2017.08.0303","article-title":"Infiltration Model Based on Traveling Characteristics of Wetting Front","volume":"82","author":"Cui","year":"2018","journal-title":"Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2005.11.002","article-title":"Simulation of Soil Wetting Pattern with Subsurface Drip Irrigation from Line Source","volume":"83","author":"Singh","year":"2006","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111874","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2020.111874","article-title":"Influence of Surface-Water Irrigation on the Distribution of Organophosphorus Pesticides in Soil-Water Systems, Jianghan Plain, Central China","volume":"281","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1175\/1525-7541(2001)002<0356:ODSMPR>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"One-Dimensional Soil Moisture Profile Retrieval by Assimilation of near-Surface Measurements: A Simplified Soil Moisture Model and Field Application","volume":"2","author":"Walker","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"272","article-title":"Soil-Wetting Front in Surface and Subsurface Drip Irrigation","volume":"166","author":"Monjezi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pap. Present. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1002\/ird.60","article-title":"Approach for Predicting the Wetting Front Depth beneath a Surface Point Source: Theory and Numerical Aspect","volume":"51","author":"Moncef","year":"2002","journal-title":"Irrig. Drain."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.2136\/sssaj1982.03615995004600040002x","article-title":"Electromagnetic Determination of Soil Water Content Using Tdr: I. Applications to Wetting Fronts and Steep Gradients","volume":"46","author":"Topp","year":"1982","journal-title":"Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1029\/2002WR001418","article-title":"Analysis of Nonuniform and Dispersive Time Domain Reflectometry Measurement Systems with Application to the Dielectric Spectroscopy of Soils","volume":"39","author":"Lin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1109\/TAU.1969.1162034","article-title":"The chirp z-transform algorithm","volume":"17","author":"Rabiner","year":"1969","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Audio Electroacoust."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Frickey, D.A. (2021, October 26). Using the Inverse Chirp-Z Transform for Time-Domain Analysis of Simulated Radar Signals, Available online: https:\/\/www.osti.gov\/servlets\/purl\/10110067."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1834","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSAA.7.001834","article-title":"Multidimensional Digital Image Representations Using Generalized Kaiser\u2013Bessel Window Functions","volume":"7","author":"Lewitt","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am. A Opt. Image Sci. Vis."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.2528\/PIERL11112102","article-title":"A Calibration Procedure for Two-Port Vna with Three Measurement Channels Based on T-Matrix","volume":"29","author":"Zhao","year":"2012","journal-title":"Prog. Electromagn. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2389.1992.tb00115.x","article-title":"Empirical evaluation of the relationship between soil dielectric constant and volumetric water content as the basis for calibrating soil moisture measurements by TDR","volume":"43","author":"Roth","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Soil Sci."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/21\/7201\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:23:01Z","timestamp":1760167381000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/21\/7201"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,29]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s21217201"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21217201","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,29]]}}}