{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,18]],"date-time":"2026-01-18T05:34:46Z","timestamp":1768714486167,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":25,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,6]],"date-time":"2021-11-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1636156800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010607","name":"University of Perugia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Identificazione e caratterizzazione accurata di sistemi e segnali, Ricerca di Base, 2019 e 2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Identificazione e caratterizzazione accurata di sistemi e segnali, Ricerca di Base, 2019 e 2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010607","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Meaningful information on the internal state of a battery can be derived by measuring its impedance. Accordingly, battery management systems based on electrochemical impedance spectroscopy are now recognized as a feasible solutions for online battery control and diagnostic. Since the impedance of a battery is always changing along with its state of charge and aging effects, it is important to have a stable impedance reference in order to calibrate and test a battery management system. In this work we propose a programmable impedance emulator that in principle could be used for the calibration of any battery management system based on electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. A digital finite-impulse-response filter is implemented, whose frequency response is programmed so as to reproduce exactly the impedance of a real battery in the frequency domain. The whole design process of the filter is presented in detail. An analytical expression for the impedance of real battery in the frequency domain is derived from an equivalent circuit model. The model is validated both through numerical simulations and experimental tests. In particular, the filter is implemented on a low-cost microcontroller unit, and the emulated impedance is measured by means of a custom-made electrochemical impedance spectroscopy measuring system, and verified by using standard commercial bench instruments. Results on this prototype show the feasibility of using the proposed emulator as a fully controllable and low-cost reference for calibrating battery impedance measurement systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21217377","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,7]],"date-time":"2021-11-07T20:42:54Z","timestamp":1636317774000},"page":"7377","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Digital Impedance Emulator for Battery Measurement System Calibration"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4964-8556","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"Santoni","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Engineering Department, University of Perugia, 06125 Perugia, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7953-4272","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessio","family":"De Angelis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Engineering Department, University of Perugia, 06125 Perugia, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9807-5948","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Moschitta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Engineering Department, University of Perugia, 06125 Perugia, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0540-1287","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paolo","family":"Carbone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Engineering Department, University of Perugia, 06125 Perugia, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tran, M.-K., and Fowler, M. (2020). A Review of Lithium-Ion Battery Fault Diagnostic Algorithms: Current Progress and Future Challenges. Algorithms, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/a13030062"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1836","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2018.2809138","article-title":"Online estimation of the electrochemical impedance spectrum and remaining useful life of lithium-ion batteries","volume":"67","author":"Guha","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2021.120116","article-title":"State of charge prediction of EV Li-ion batteries using EIS: A machine learning approach","volume":"223","author":"Babaeiyazdi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2015.05.148","article-title":"Performance analysis and SOH (state of health) evaluation of lithium polymer batteries through electrochemical impedance spectroscopy","volume":"89","author":"Galeotti","year":"2015","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227798","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2020.227798","article-title":"A new on-line method for lithium plating detection in lithium-ion batteries","volume":"451","author":"Koleti","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100093","DOI":"10.1016\/j.etran.2020.100093","article-title":"A Review of Modeling, Acquisition, and Application of Lithium-ion Battery Impedance for Onboard Battery Management","volume":"7","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"eTransportation"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Komsiyska, L., Buchberger, T., Diehl, S., Ehrensberger, M., Hanzl, C., Hartmann, C., H\u00f6lzle, M., Kleiner, J., Lewerenz, M., and Liebhart, B. (2021). Critical Review of Intelligent Battery Systems: Challenges, Implementation, and Potential for Electric Vehicles. Energies, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/en14185989"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gong, Z., Liu, Z., Wang, Y., Gupta, K., da Silva, C., Liu, T., Zheng, Z.H., Zhang, W.P., van Lammeren, J.P.M., and Bergveld, H.J. (2018, January 4\u20138). IC for online EIS in automotive batteries and hybrid architecture for high-current perturbation in low-impedance cells. Proceedings of the APEC 2018, San Antonio, TX, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/APEC.2018.8341280"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carbonnier, H., Barde, H., Riga, L., and Carre, A. (October, January 30). Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy for Online Satellite Battery Monitoring Using Square Wave Excitation. Proceedings of the 2019 European Space Power Conference (ESPC), C\u00f4te d\u2019Azur, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/ESPC.2019.8932028"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"1","article-title":"Online EIS and Diagnostics on Lithium-Ion Batteries by Means of Low-Power Integrated Sensing and Parametric Modeling","volume":"70","author":"Crescentini","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Angelis, A., Buchicchio, E., Santoni, F., Moschitta, A., and Carbone, P. (2021, January 1\u20132). Practical Broadband Measurement of Battery EIS. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE International Workshop on Metrology for Automotive (MetroAutomotive), Bologna, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/MetroAutomotive50197.2021.9502889"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olarte, J., Mart\u00ednez de Ilarduya, J., Zulueta, E., Ferret, R., Fern\u00e1ndez-G\u00e1miz, U., and Lopez-Guede, J.M. (2021). A Battery Management System with EIS Monitoring of Life Expectancy for Lead\u2013Acid Batteries. Electronics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics10111228"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Allen, J. (November, January 30). Simulation and Test Systems for Validation of Electric Drive and Battery Management Systems. Proceedings of the SAE Technical Paper, SAE 2012 Aerospace Electronics and Avionics Systems Conference, Phoenix, AZ, USA.","DOI":"10.4271\/2012-01-2144"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fleischer, C., Sauer, D.U., Barreras, J.V., Schaltz, E., and Christensen, A.E. (2016, January 6\u20138). Development of software and strategies for Battery Management System testing on HIL simulator. Proceedings of the 2016 Eleventh International Conference on Ecological Vehicles and Renewable Energies (EVER), Monte Carlo, Monaco.","DOI":"10.1109\/EVER.2016.7476438"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huesca-Nieto, E.A., Villa-Villase\u00f1or, N., and L\u00f3pez-Hern\u00e1ndez, J. (2020, January 4\u20136). Arbitrary Waveform Generation Based on Direct Digital Synthesis for Automotive Battery Voltage Transient Simulation. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE International Autumn Meeting on Power, Electronics and Computing (ROPEC), Ixtapa, Mexico.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROPEC50909.2020.9258678"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bui, T.M.N., Niri, M.F., Worwood, D., Dinh, T.Q., and Marco, J. (2019, January 23\u201326). An Advanced Hardware-in-the-Loop Battery Simulation Platform for the Experimental Testing of Battery Management System. Proceedings of the 2019 23rd International Conference on Mechatronics Technology (ICMT), Salerno, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICMECT.2019.8932115"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barreras, J.V., Swierczynski, M., Schaltz, E., Andreasen, S.J., Fleisher, C., Sauer, D.U., and Elk\u00e6r, A. (April, January 31). Functional analysis of Battery Management Systems using multi-cell HIL simulator. Proceedings of the 2015 Tenth International Conference on Ecological Vehicles and Renewable Energies (EVER).","DOI":"10.1109\/EVER.2015.7112984"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5086","DOI":"10.1109\/TIA.2016.2585539","article-title":"An Advanced HIL Simulation Battery Model for Battery Management System Testing","volume":"52","author":"Barreras","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buccolini, L., Orcioni, S., Longhi, S., and Conti, M. (2018, January 12\u201315). Cell Battery Emulator for Hardware-in-the-Loop BMS Test. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Conference on Environment and Electrical Engineering and 2018 IEEE Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Europe (EEEIC\/I&CPS Europe), Palermo, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/EEEIC.2018.8493731"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vergori, E., Mocera, F., and Som\u00e0, A. (2018). Battery Modelling and Simulation Using a Programmable Testing Equipment. Computers, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/computers7020020"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di Rienzo, R., Roncella, R., Morello, R., Baronti, F., and Saletti, R. (February, January 31). Low-cost modular battery emulator for battery management system testing. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Conference on Industrial Electronics for Sustainable Energy Systems (IESES), Hamilton, New Zealand.","DOI":"10.1109\/IESES.2018.8349848"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1516","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2017.2652500","article-title":"Calibration of an LCR-Meter at Arbitrary Phase Angles Using a Fully Automated Impedance Simulator","volume":"66","author":"Overney","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Haykin, S., and Van Veen, B. (2002). Signals and Systems, John Wiley & Sons. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santoni, F., De Angelis, A., Moschitta, A., and Carbone, P. (2021, January 6\u20139). Analysis of the Uncertainty of EIS Battery Data Fitting to an Equivalent Circuit Model. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE 6th International forum on Research and Technology for Society and Industry (RTSI), Online Forum.","DOI":"10.1109\/RTSI50628.2021.9597288"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"231","article-title":"Some approximations of fractional order operators used in control theory and applications","volume":"3","author":"Vinagre","year":"2000","journal-title":"Fract. Calc. Appl. Anal."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/21\/7377\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:26:44Z","timestamp":1760167604000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/21\/7377"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,6]]},"references-count":25,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s21217377"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21217377","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,6]]}}}