{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,20]],"date-time":"2026-02-20T15:54:02Z","timestamp":1771602842999,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,14]],"date-time":"2021-11-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1636848000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004663","name":"Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["MOST 108-2622-8-002-012-TA"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOST 108-2622-8-002-012-TA"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004663","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004663","name":"Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["MOST 109-2622-8-002-012-TA"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOST 109-2622-8-002-012-TA"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004663","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004663","name":"Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["MOST 107-2410-H-002 -129 -MY3"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOST 107-2410-H-002 -129 -MY3"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004663","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004663","name":"Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["MOST 108-2420-H-492 -001 -MY3"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOST 108-2420-H-492 -001 -MY3"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004663","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Mind-wandering has been shown to largely influence our learning efficiency, especially in the digital and distracting era nowadays. Detecting mind-wandering thus becomes imperative in educational scenarios. Here, we used a wearable eye-tracker to record eye movements during the sustained attention to response task. Eye movement analysis with hidden Markov models (EMHMM), which takes both spatial and temporal eye-movement information into account, was used to examine if participants\u2019 eye movement patterns can differentiate between the states of focused attention and mind-wandering. Two representative eye movement patterns were discovered through clustering using EMHMM: centralized and distributed patterns. Results showed that participants with the centralized pattern had better performance on detecting targets and rated themselves as more focused than those with the distributed pattern. This study indicates that distinct eye movement patterns are associated with different attentional states (focused attention vs. mind-wandering) and demonstrates a novel approach in using EMHMM to study attention. Moreover, this study provides a potential approach to capture the mind-wandering state in the classroom without interrupting the ongoing learning behavior.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21227569","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,14]],"date-time":"2021-11-14T20:51:53Z","timestamp":1636923113000},"page":"7569","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["When Eyes Wander Around: Mind-Wandering as Revealed by Eye Movement Analysis with Hidden Markov Models"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9162-8797","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hsing-Hao","family":"Lee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, College of Science, National Taiwan University, Taipei City 10617, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2388-1627","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zih-Ling","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate Institute of Brain and Mind Sciences, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei City 10051, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4597-8697","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Su-Ling","family":"Yeh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, College of Science, National Taiwan University, Taipei City 10617, Taiwan"},{"name":"Graduate Institute of Brain and Mind Sciences, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei City 10051, Taiwan"},{"name":"Neurobiology and Cognitive Science Center, National Taiwan University, Taipei City 10617, Taiwan"},{"name":"Center for Artificial Intelligence and Advanced Robotics, National Taiwan University, Taipei City 10617, Taiwan"},{"name":"Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2271-8710","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Janet Huiwen","family":"Hsiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4731-8633","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"An-Yeu (Andy)","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate Institute of Electronics Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei City 10617, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"946","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.132.6.946","article-title":"The restless mind","volume":"132","author":"Smallwood","year":"2006","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1037\/a0031569","article-title":"The costs and benefits of mind-wandering: A review","volume":"67","author":"Mooneyham","year":"2013","journal-title":"Can. J. Exp. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2013.00524","article-title":"Pros and cons of a wandering mind: A prospective study","volume":"4","author":"Ottaviani","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"932","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1192439","article-title":"A wandering mind is an unhappy mind","volume":"330","author":"Killingsworth","year":"2010","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1037\/xhp0000100","article-title":"The attentional cost of receiving a cell phone notification","volume":"41","author":"Stothart","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"586","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-012-0367-y","article-title":"Mind wandering while reading easy and difficult texts","volume":"20","author":"Feng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"319","article-title":"Meta-awareness, perceptual decoupling and the wandering mind","volume":"15","author":"Schooler","year":"2011","journal-title":"Trends. Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720810391530","article-title":"Mind wandering behind the wheel: Performance and oculomotor correlates","volume":"53","author":"He","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hum. Factors"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2013.00495","article-title":"Mind wandering and education: From the classroom to online learning","volume":"4","author":"Szpunar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1037\/stl0000055","article-title":"Mind wandering during lectures II: Relation to academic performance","volume":"2","author":"Wammes","year":"2016","journal-title":"Scholarsh. Teach. Learn. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.concog.2018.06.006","article-title":"Who is prone to wander and when? Examining an integrative effect of working memory capacity and mindfulness trait on mind wandering under different task loads","volume":"63","author":"Ju","year":"2018","journal-title":"Conscious. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12969","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.12969","article-title":"The gaze bias effect in toddlers: Preliminary evidence for the developmental study of visual decision-making","volume":"23","author":"Saito","year":"2020","journal-title":"Dev. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1827","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(95)00294-4","article-title":"Saccade target selection and object recognition: Evidence for a common attentional mechanism","volume":"36","author":"Deubel","year":"1996","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-3932(87)90041-8","article-title":"Reorienting attention across the horizontal and vertical meridians: Evidence in favor of a premotor theory of attention","volume":"25","author":"Rizzolatti","year":"1987","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ikkai, A., Dandekar, S., and Curtis, C.E. (2016). Lateralization in alpha-band oscillations predicts the locus and spatial distribution of attention. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0154796"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1713","DOI":"10.3758\/s13414-021-02250-z","article-title":"Blue-light effects on saccadic eye movements and attentional disengagement","volume":"83","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Atten. Percept. Psychophys."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2415","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2009.08.010","article-title":"Microsaccades: Small steps on a long way","volume":"49","author":"Rolfs","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vision Res."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Hutt, S., Hardey, J., Bixler, R., Stewart, A., Risko, E.F., and D\u2019Mello, S. (2017, January 25\u201328). Gaze-based detection of mind wandering during lecture viewing. Proceedings of the International Educational Data Mining Society, Wuhan, China."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Mills, C., Bixler, R., Wang, X., and D\u2019Mello, S.K. (July, January 29). Automatic gaze-based detection of mind wandering during narrative film comprehension. Proceedings of the International Educational Data Mining Society, Raleigh, NC, USA."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1002\/acp.3632","article-title":"Wandering eyes: Eye movements during mind wandering in video lectures","volume":"34","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Cogn. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.1037\/xge0000309","article-title":"Cognitive coupling during reading","volume":"146","author":"Mills","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Gen."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1882","DOI":"10.1016\/j.concog.2011.09.010","article-title":"The eyes know what you are thinking: Eye movements as an objective measure of mind wandering","volume":"20","author":"Uzzaman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Conscious. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van Opheusden, B., Galbiati, G., Kuperwajs, I., Bnaya, Z., and Ma, W.J. (2021). Revealing the impact of expertise on human planning with a two-player board game. PsyArXiv.","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/rhq5j"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kennedy, A., Heller, D., Pynte, J., and Radach, R. (2000). Relations between spatial and temporal aspects of eye movement control. Reading as a Perceptual Process, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-008043642-5\/50001-2"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2017.03.010","article-title":"Is having similar eye movement patterns during face learning and recognition beneficial for recognition performance? Evidence from hidden Markov modeling","volume":"141","author":"Chuk","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vision Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1167\/14.11.8","article-title":"Understanding eye movements in face recognition using hidden Markov models","volume":"14","author":"Chuk","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Vis."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1704","DOI":"10.1080\/02699931.2020.1781599","article-title":"Understanding visual attention to face emotions in social anxiety using hidden Markov models","volume":"34","author":"Chan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cogn. Emot."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2200","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-017-1419-0","article-title":"Eye-movement patterns in face recognition are associated with cognitive decline in older adults","volume":"25","author":"Chan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"21","article-title":"Focus: Attention science: The role of attention in learning in the digital age","volume":"92","author":"Lodge","year":"2019","journal-title":"Yale J. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.3758\/BRM.41.4.1149","article-title":"Statistical power analyses using G* Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses","volume":"41","author":"Faul","year":"2009","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.concog.2011.12.007","article-title":"Different efficiencies of attentional orienting in different wandering minds","volume":"21","author":"Hu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Conscious. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1016\/S0028-3932(97)00015-8","article-title":"Oops!: Performance correlates of everyday attentional failures in traumatic brain injured and normal subjects","volume":"35","author":"Robertson","year":"1997","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn.2008.20037","article-title":"Going AWOL in the brain: Mind wandering reduces cortical analysis of external events","volume":"20","author":"Smallwood","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Chen, Y.-T., Lee, H.-H., Shih, C.-Y., Chen, Z.-L., Beh, W.-K., Yeh, S.-L., and Wu, A.Y. (arXiv, 2020). An effective entropy-assisted mind-wandering detection system with EEG signals based on MM-SART database, arXiv."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1247","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.581129","article-title":"Personality and Mind-Wandering Self-Perception: The role of meta-awareness","volume":"12","author":"Ibaceta","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8719","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0900234106","article-title":"Experience sampling during fMRI reveals default network and executive system contributions to mind wandering","volume":"106","author":"Christoff","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3040","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2010.10.008","article-title":"Lost in thoughts: Neural markers of low alertness during mind wandering","volume":"54","author":"Braboszcz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2017.08.003","article-title":"Hidden Markov model analysis reveals the advantage of analytic eye movement patterns in face recognition across cultures","volume":"169","author":"Chuk","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Bishop, C.M. (2006). Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning, Springer."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1037\/emo0000724","article-title":"Modulation of mood on eye movement and face recognition performance","volume":"21","author":"An","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emotion"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104616","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2021.104616","article-title":"Do portrait artists have enhanced face processing abilities? Evidence from hidden Markov modeling of eye movements","volume":"211","author":"Hsiao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hsiao, J.H., Chan, A.B., An, J., Yeh, S.-L., and Jingling, L. (2021). Understanding the collinear masking effect in visual search through eye tracking. Psychon. Bull. Rev.","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-021-01944-7"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hsiao, J.H., Lan, H., Zheng, Y., and Chan, A.B. (2021). Eye Movement analysis with Hidden Markov Models (EMHMM) with co-clustering. Behav. Res. Methods.","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-021-01541-5"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"zsy220","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/zsy220","article-title":"Individuals with insomnia misrecognize angry faces as fearful faces while missing the eyes: An eye-tracking study","volume":"42","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"101542","article-title":"Does adding video and subtitles to an audio lesson facilitate its comprehension?","volume":"2021","author":"Zheng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Learn. Instr."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"697","article-title":"Clustering hidden Markov models with variational HEM","volume":"15","author":"Coviello","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Mach. Learn. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1981.10477633","article-title":"The analysis of categorical data from complex sample surveys: Chi-squared tests for goodness of fit and independence in two-way tables","volume":"76","author":"Rao","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Am. Stat. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-5415.2005.53221.x","article-title":"The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA: A brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment","volume":"53","author":"Nasreddine","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Am. Geriatr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chan, C.Y., Wong, J., Chan, A.B., Lee, T.M., and Hsiao, J.H. (2016, January 10\u201313). Analytic eye movement patterns in face recognition are associated with better performance and more top-down control of visual attention: An fMRI study. Proceedings of the 38th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, Philadelphia, PA, USA.","DOI":"10.1167\/17.10.1144"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-017-1309-5","article-title":"Forgetting from lapses of sustained attention","volume":"25","author":"Debettencourt","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1016\/j.concog.2013.06.003","article-title":"Perceptual decoupling or motor decoupling?","volume":"22","author":"Head","year":"2013","journal-title":"Conscious. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.concog.2016.02.017","article-title":"The attention-lapse and motor decoupling accounts of SART performance are not mutually exclusive","volume":"41","author":"Seli","year":"2016","journal-title":"Conscious. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691619897966","article-title":"What\u2019s in a task? Complications in the study of the task-unrelated-thought variety of mind wandering","volume":"15","author":"Murray","year":"2020","journal-title":"Perspect. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-010814-015331","article-title":"The science of mind wandering: Empirically navigating the stream of consciousness","volume":"66","author":"Smallwood","year":"2015","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-019-01212-6","article-title":"Examining the effects of probe frequency, response options, and framing within the thought-probe method","volume":"51","author":"Robison","year":"2019","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-017-0857-y","article-title":"An automated behavioral measure of mind wandering during computerized reading","volume":"50","author":"Faber","year":"2018","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1080\/09297049.2019.1639654","article-title":"Aspects of attention and inhibitory control are associated with on-task classroom behaviour and behavioural assessments, by both teachers and parents, in children with high and low symptoms of ADHD","volume":"26","author":"Johnson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Child Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.116.2.220","article-title":"Dual-task interference in simple tasks: Data and theory","volume":"116","author":"Pashler","year":"1994","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1201","DOI":"10.1037\/xhp0000743","article-title":"The eye\u2013mind wandering link: Identifying gaze indices of mind wandering across tasks","volume":"46","author":"Faber","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1002\/acp.3773","article-title":"Impact of mind-wandering on visual information processing while driving: An electrophysiological study","volume":"35","author":"Pepin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Cogn. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1002\/acp.3163","article-title":"The impact of modality on mind wandering during comprehension","volume":"30","author":"Kopp","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Cogn. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52138","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2870052","article-title":"Peeking inside the black-box: A survey on explainable artificial intelligence (XAI)","volume":"6","author":"Adadi","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Hsiao, J.H., Ngai, H.H.T., Qiu, L., Yang, Y., and Cao, C.C. (2021). Roadmap of designing cognitive metrics for explainable artificial intelligence (XAI). arXiv."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Hsiao, J.H., An, J.H., and Chan, A.B. (August, January 29). The role of eye movement consistency in learning to recognise faces: Computational and experimental examinations. Proceedings of the 42nd Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, Virtual Meeting."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v067.i01","article-title":"Linear mixed-effects models using lme4","volume":"67","author":"Bates","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Stat. Softw."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y.-C., Yeh, S.-L., Huang, T.-R., Chang, Y.-L., Goh, J.O., and Fu, L.-C. (2021). Social robots for evaluating attention state in older adults. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21217142"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15505","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-94989-6","article-title":"In search of blue-light effects on cognitive control","volume":"11","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/22\/7569\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:30:03Z","timestamp":1760167803000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/22\/7569"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,14]]},"references-count":67,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s21227569"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21227569","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,14]]}}}