{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T23:32:44Z","timestamp":1780529564873,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,19]],"date-time":"2021-11-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1637280000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Attention and awareness towards musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) in the dental profession has increased considerably in the last few years. From recent literature reviews, it appears that the prevalence of MSDs in dentists concerns between 64 and 93%. In our clinical trial, we have assessed the dentist posture during the extraction of 90 third lower molars depending on whether the operator performs the intervention by the use of the operating microscope, surgical loupes, or with the naked eye. In particular, we analyzed the evolution of the body posture during different interventions evaluating the impact of visual aids with respect to naked eye interventions. The presented posture assessment approach is based on 3D acquisitions of the upper body, based on planar markers, which allows us to discriminate spatial displacements up to 2 mm in translation and 1 degree in rotation. We found a significant reduction of neck bending in interventions using visual aids, in particular for those performed with the microscope. We further investigated the impact of different postures on MSD risk using a widely adopted evaluation tool for ergonomic investigations of workplaces, named (RULA) Rapid Upper Limb Assessment. The analysis performed in this clinical trial is based on a 3D marker tracker that is able to follow a surgeon\u2019s upper limbs during interventions. The method highlighted pros and cons of different approaches.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21227717","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,21]],"date-time":"2021-11-21T21:00:50Z","timestamp":1637528450000},"page":"7717","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Posture Assessment in Dentistry for Different Visual Aids Using 2D Markers"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4010-3736","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alberto","family":"Pispero","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Azienda Ospedaliera Santi Paolo e Carlo, Unit\u00e0 Operativa Complessa Odontostomatologia II, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, Via Beldiletto 1\/3, 20142 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6557-2120","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Marcon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Elettronica, Informazione e Bioingegneria (DEIB), Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, 32, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carlo","family":"Ghezzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Private Practice, Via G. Verdi 4, 20019 Settimo Milanese, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Domenico","family":"Massironi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Private Practice, Via L. Cadorna, 21, 20077 Melegnano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7287-2188","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elena Maria","family":"Varoni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Azienda Ospedaliera Santi Paolo e Carlo, Unit\u00e0 Operativa Complessa Odontostomatologia II, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, Via Beldiletto 1\/3, 20142 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stefano","family":"Tubaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Elettronica, Informazione e Bioingegneria (DEIB), Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, 32, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0218-8292","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giovanni","family":"Lodi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Azienda Ospedaliera Santi Paolo e Carlo, Unit\u00e0 Operativa Complessa Odontostomatologia II, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, Via Beldiletto 1\/3, 20142 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joen.2010.03.003","article-title":"Magnification\u2019s effect on endodontic fine motor skills","volume":"36","author":"Bowers","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Endod."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.61872\/sdj-2016-03-142","article-title":"Visual acuity and magnification devices in dentistry","volume":"126","author":"Perrin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Swiss Dent. J."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bdj.2014.48","article-title":"Minimal intervention dentistry II: Part 1. Contribution of the operating microscope to dentistry","volume":"216","author":"Sitbon","year":"2014","journal-title":"Br. Dent. J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.21815\/JDE.019.044","article-title":"The Effect of Magnification Loupes on Spontaneous Posture Change of Dental Students during Preclinical Restorative Training","volume":"83","author":"Carpentier","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Dent. Educ."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"130","article-title":"Ergonomic guidelines for selecting patient chairs and delivery systems","volume":"28","author":"Valachi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Dent. Today"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.5005\/jp-journals-10005-1229","article-title":"Ergonomics in Dentistry","volume":"7","author":"Gupta","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Clin. Pediatr. Dent."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1601-5037.2009.00395.x","article-title":"A systematic review of musculoskeletal disorders among dental professionals","volume":"7","author":"Hayes","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Dent. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1194","DOI":"10.21815\/JDE.017.077","article-title":"Dental Hygiene Students\u2019 Self-Assessment of Ergonomics Utilizing Photography","volume":"81","author":"Partido","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Dent. Educ."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1344","DOI":"10.14219\/jada.archive.2003.0048","article-title":"Mechanisms leading to musculoskeletal disorders in dentistry","volume":"134","author":"Valachi","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Am. Dent. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1300\/J025v14n03_06","article-title":"An anthropometric and postural risk assessment of children\u2019s school computer work environments","volume":"14","author":"Oates","year":"1999","journal-title":"Comput. Sch."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1080\/08886504.1998.10782249","article-title":"The effect of computer workstation design on student posture","volume":"31","author":"Laeser","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Res. Comput. Educ."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1582","DOI":"10.1080\/00140130701584944","article-title":"An investigation of children\u2019s posture and discomfort during computer use","volume":"50","author":"Breen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ergonomics"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.3233\/WOR-2009-0830","article-title":"Computer use in school: Its effect on posture and discomfort in schoolchildren","volume":"32","author":"Kelly","year":"2009","journal-title":"Work"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/0003-6870(93)90080-S","article-title":"RULA: A survey method for the investigation of work-related upper limb disorders","volume":"24","author":"McAtamney","year":"1993","journal-title":"Appl. Ergon."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"(2020, November 28). Graphpad Software. Available online: https:\/\/www.graphpad.com\/quickcalcs\/randomize1.cfm."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imavis.2018.05.004","article-title":"Speeded up detection of squared fiducial markers","volume":"76","year":"2018","journal-title":"Image Vis. Comput."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patcog.2015.09.023","article-title":"Generation of fiducial marker dictionaries using mixed integer linear programming","volume":"51","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hartley, R., and Zisserman, A. (2003). Multiple View Geometry in Computer Vision, Cambridge University Press. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511811685"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shintemirov, A., Taunyazov, T., Omarali, B., Nurbayeva, A., Kim, A., Bukeyev, A., and Rubagotti, M. (2020). An Open-Source 7-DOF Wireless Human Arm Motion-Tracking System for Use in Robotics Research. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20113082"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Kaehler, A., and Bradski, G. (2016). Learning OpenCV 3: Computer Vision in C++ with the OpenCV Library, O\u2019Reilly Media, Inc."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Poroykov, A., Kalugin, P., Shitov, S., and Lapitskaya, I. (2020, January 22\u201325). Modeling ArUco Markers Images for Accuracy Analysis of Their 3D Pose Estimation. Proceedings of the 30th International Conference on Computer Graphics and Machine Vision (GraphiCon 2020), St. Petersburg, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.51130\/graphicon-2020-2-4-14"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012047","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/1607\/1\/012047","article-title":"A precision pose measurement technique based on multi-cooperative logo","volume":"1607","author":"Guo","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Xavier, R., Silva, B., and Gon\u00e7alves, L. (November, January 30). Accuracy Analysis of Augmented Reality Markers for Visual Mapping and Localization. Proceedings of the Workshop of Computer Vision (WVC), Natal, Brazil."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vince, J. (2011). Quaternions for Computer Graphics, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-85729-760-0"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Liang, K.K. (2018). Efficient conversion from rotating matrix to rotation axis and angle by extending Rodrigues\u2019 formula. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"021006","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4041889","article-title":"A survey on the computation of quaternions from rotation matrices","volume":"11","author":"Sarabandi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Mech. Robot."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"439","article-title":"A Survey of Attitude Representations","volume":"41","author":"Shuster","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Astronaut. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1193","DOI":"10.2514\/1.28949","article-title":"Averaging Quaternions","volume":"30","author":"Markley","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Guid. Control Dyn."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Dobrowolski, P. (2015). Swing-twist decomposition in Clifford algebra. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Huyghe, B. (2011). Design and Implementation of a Mobile Sensor System for Human Posture Tracking. [Ph.D. Thesis, Ghent University]."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-134-8-200104170-00011","article-title":"The CONSORT statement: Revised recommendations for improving the quality of reports of parallel-group randomized trials","volume":"134","author":"Moher","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marcon, M., Pispero, A., Pignatelli, N., Lodi, G., and Tubaro, S. (2017, January 22\u201329). Postural Assessment in Dentistry Based on Multiple Markers Tracking. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision Workshops (ICCVW), Venice, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCVW.2017.167"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-6870(99)00039-3","article-title":"Rapid Entire Body Assessment (REBA)","volume":"31","author":"Hignett","year":"2000","journal-title":"Appl. Ergon."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/22\/7717\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:33:00Z","timestamp":1760167980000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/22\/7717"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,19]]},"references-count":33,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s21227717"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21227717","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,19]]}}}