{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]],"date-time":"2026-07-15T18:36:37Z","timestamp":1784140597461,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":78,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,30]],"date-time":"2021-12-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1640822400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Livestock farming is, in most cases in Europe, unsupervised, thus making it difficult to ensure adequate control of the position of the animals for the improvement of animal welfare. In addition, the geographical areas involved in livestock grazing usually have difficult access with harsh orography and lack of communications infrastructure, thus the need to provide a low-power livestock localization and monitoring system is of paramount importance, which is crucial not for a sustainable agriculture, but also for the protection of native breeds and meats thanks to their controlled supervision. In this context, this work presents an Internet of things (IoT)-based system integrating low-power wide area (LPWA) technology, cloud, and virtualization services to provide real-time livestock location monitoring. Taking into account the constraints coming from the environment in terms of energy supply and network connectivity, our proposed system is based on a wearable device equipped with inertial sensors, Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver, and LoRaWAN transceiver, which can provide a satisfactory compromise between performance, cost, and energy consumption. At first, this article provides the state-of-the-art localization techniques and technologies applied to smart livestock. Then, we proceed to provide the hardware and firmware co-design to achieve very low energy consumption, thus providing a significant positive impact to the battery life. The proposed platform has been evaluated in a pilot test in the northern part of Italy, evaluating different configurations in terms of sampling period, experimental duration, and number of devices. The results are analyzed and discussed for packet delivery ratio, energy consumption, localization accuracy, battery discharge measurement, and delay.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22010273","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,30]],"date-time":"2021-12-30T23:29:07Z","timestamp":1640906947000},"page":"273","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":31,"title":["Practical Experiences of a Smart Livestock Location Monitoring System Leveraging GNSS, LoRaWAN and Cloud Services"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4127-1902","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mike O.","family":"Ojo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, 10095 Grugliasco (TO), Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4268-5613","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Irene","family":"Viola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, 10095 Grugliasco (TO), Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2537-6429","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mario","family":"Baratta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, 10095 Grugliasco (TO), Italy"},{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1408-7528","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefano","family":"Giordano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4322","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2020.3003910","article-title":"From Industry 4.0 to Agriculture 4.0: Current Status, Enabling Technologies, and Research Challenges","volume":"17","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"De Clercq, M., Vats, A., and Biel, A. (2018, January 11\u201313). Agriculture 4.0: The Future of Farming Technology. Proceedings of the World Government Summit, Dubai, United Arab Emirates."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022029920000667","article-title":"Sensing Solutions for Improving the Performance, Health and Wellbeing of Small Ruminants","volume":"87","author":"Caja","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Dairy Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022029920000382","article-title":"Individual Dairy Cow Management: Achievements, Obstacles and Prospects","volume":"87","author":"Maltz","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Dairy Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-animal-020518-114851","article-title":"Smart Animal Agriculture: Application of Real-time Sensors to Improve Animal Well-being and Production","volume":"7","author":"Halachmi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Anim. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.20870\/productions-animales.2014.27.2.3058","article-title":"Elevage de Pr\u00e9cision en Syst\u00e8mes D\u2019\u00e9levage Peu Intensifi\u00e9s","volume":"27","author":"Bocquier","year":"2014","journal-title":"INRA Prod. Anim."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rutter, S.M. (2017). Advanced Livestock Management Solutions. Advances in Sheep Welfare, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-08-100718-1.00013-3"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"139","article-title":"Agronomic Aspects of Biodiversity Targeted Management of Temperate Grasslands in Europe\u2014A\u00a0Review","volume":"3","author":"Isselstein","year":"2005","journal-title":"Agronomy Res."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"456","article-title":"Transition Towards Sustainability in Agriculture and Food Systems: Role of Information and Communication Technologies","volume":"5","author":"Allahyari","year":"2018","journal-title":"Inf. Process. Agric."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1299","DOI":"10.1071\/AN15400","article-title":"Development and Application of a Livestock Phenomics Platform to Enhance Productivity and Efficiency at Pasture","volume":"56","author":"Greenwood","year":"2016","journal-title":"Anim. Prod. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2020.06.018","article-title":"Performance and Optimization of an Ear Tag Automated Activity Monitor for Estrus Prediction in Dairy Heifers","volume":"155","author":"Macmillan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"3","article-title":"Changes in Cow activity, Milk Yield, and Milk Conductivity before Clinical Diagnosis of Ketosis, and Acidosis","volume":"70","author":"Antanaitis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Zoot"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"N\u00f3brega, L., Gon\u00e7alves, P., Pedreiras, P., and Pereira, J. (2019). An IoT-based Solution for Intelligent Farming. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19030603"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2008.2008846","article-title":"Ranging with Ultrawide Bandwidth Signals in Multipath Environments","volume":"97","author":"Dardari","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1007\/s11227-011-0693-2","article-title":"A Localization Method for the Internet of Things","volume":"63","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Supercomput."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30149","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2843325","article-title":"Rssi-based Indoor Localization with the Internet of Things","volume":"6","author":"Sadowski","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Cheng, X., Thaeler, A., Xue, G., and Chen, D. (2004, January 7\u201311). TPS: A Time-Based Positioning Scheme for Outdoor Wireless Sensor Networks. Proceedings of the IEEE INFOCOM 2004, Hong Kong, China."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.1007\/s11036-018-1090-3","article-title":"A Survey of Localization Systems in Internet of Things","volume":"24","author":"Khelifi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mob. Netw. Appl."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cannizzaro, D., Zafiri, M., Pagliari, D.J., Patti, E., Macii, E., Poncino, M., and Acquaviva, A. (2020). A Comparison Analysis of BLE-based Algorithms for Localization in Industrial Environments. Electronics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics9010044"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Niculescu, D., and Nath, B. (April, January 30). Ad Hoc Positioning System (APS)\u00a0Using AOA. Proceedings of the IEEE INFOCOM 2003, Twenty-Second Annual Joint Conference of the IEEE Computer and Communications Societies (IEEE Cat. No. 03CH37428), San Francisco, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMCC.2007.905750","article-title":"Survey of Wireless Indoor Positioning Techniques and Systems","volume":"37","author":"Liu","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. Part C Appl. Rev."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2017.1600510CM","article-title":"A Primer on 3GPP\u00a0Narrowband Internet of Things","volume":"55","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"3GPP (2018). Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA). Technical Specification (TS), 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), TS 36.321, Version 14.7.0, 3GPP. Available online: https:\/\/www.etsi.org\/deliver\/etsi_ts\/136300_136399\/136321\/14.07.00_60\/ts_136321v140700p.pdf."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2017.1700269","article-title":"Positioning for the Internet of Things: A 3GPP\u00a0Perspective","volume":"55","author":"Lin","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20557","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2017.2751586","article-title":"Narrow Band Internet of Things","volume":"5","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Hofmann-Wellenhof, B., Lichtenegger, H., and Wasle, E. (2008). GNSS\u2013Global Navigation Satellite Systems: GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and More, Springer. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1109\/MAES.2014.14110","article-title":"Principles of GNSS, Inertial, and Multisensor Integrated Navigation Systems","volume":"30","author":"Groves","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Aerosp. Electron. Syst. Mag."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vejlgaard, B., Lauridsen, M., Nguyen, H., Kov\u00e1cs, I.Z., Mogensen, P., and Sorensen, M. (2017, January 4\u20137). Coverage and Capacity Analysis of Sigfox, LoRa, GPRS, and NB-IOT. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 85th Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC Spring), Sydney, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/VTCSpring.2017.8108666"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"SIGFOX (2021, December 01). Sigfox in Agriculture [online]. Available online: https:\/\/www.sigfox.com\/en\/agriculture."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ribeiro, G.G., de Lima, L.F., Oliveira, L., Rodrigues, J.J., Marins, C.N., and Marcondes, G.A. (2018, January 3\u20136). An Outdoor Localization System based on Sigfox. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE 87th Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC Spring), Porto, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1109\/VTCSpring.2018.8417853"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reynders, B., and Pollin, S. (2016, January 22). Chirp Spread Spectrum as a Modulation Technique for Long Range Communication. Proceedings of the 2016 Symposium on Communications and Vehicular Technologies (SCVT), Mons, Belgium.","DOI":"10.1109\/SCVT.2016.7797659"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2017.1600613","article-title":"Understanding the Limits of LORAWAN","volume":"55","author":"Adelantado","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ojo, M.O., Adami, D., and Giordano, S. (2021). Experimental Evaluation of a LoRa Wildlife Monitoring Network in a Forest Vegetation Area. Future Internet, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/fi13050115"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Froiz-M\u00edguez, I., Lopez-Iturri, P., Fraga-Lamas, P., Celaya-Echarri, M., Blanco-Novoa, \u00d3., Azpilicueta, L., Falcone, F., and Fern\u00e1ndez-Caram\u00e9s, T.M. (2020). Design, Implementation, and Empirical Validation of an IoT\u00a0Smart Irrigation System for Fog Computing Applications Based on LoRa and LoRaWAN\u00a0Sensor Nodes. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20236865"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132125","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3114503","article-title":"Design, Development and Valuation of an Intelligent Animal Repelling System for Crop Protection Based on Embedded Edge-AI","volume":"9","author":"Adami","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Codeluppi, G., Cilfone, A., Davoli, L., and Ferrari, G. (2020). LoRaFarM: A LORAWAN-Based Smart Farming Modular IOT\u00a0Architecture. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20072028"},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"LoRa Alliance Strategy Committee (2020). LoRaWAN Geolocation Whitepaper, LoRa Alliance. Technical Report."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"100235","article-title":"Benchmarking RSS-based Localization Algorithms with LoRaWAN","volume":"11","author":"Janssen","year":"2020","journal-title":"IOT"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Darroudi, S.M., and Gomez, C. (2017). Bluetooth Low Energy Mesh Networks: A\u00a0Survey. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17071467"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Woolley, M. (2020). Bluetooth Core Specification Version 5.2 Feature Overview, Bluetooth SIG."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nikodem, M. (2021, January 16\u201318). Bluetooth Low Energy Livestock Positioning for Smart Farming Applications. Proceedings of the International Conference on Computational Science, Krakow, Poland.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-77970-2_5"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Makario, J., and wa MAINA, C. (2021, January 10\u201314). A Bluetooth Low Energy (ble) Based System for Livestock Tracking and Localization. Proceedings of the 2021 IST-Africa Conference (IST-Africa), South Africa, South Africa."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1655","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comcom.2006.12.020","article-title":"Wireless Sensor Networks: A\u00a0Survey on the State of the Art and the 802.15.4 and Zigbee Standards","volume":"30","author":"Baronti","year":"2007","journal-title":"Comput. Commun."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2010.08.014","article-title":"Zigbee-based Wireless Sensor Network Localization for Cattle Monitoring in Grazing Fields","volume":"74","author":"Young","year":"2010","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2007.09.010","article-title":"Zigbee-based Wireless Sensor Networks for Monitoring Animal Presence and Pasture time in a Strip of New Grass","volume":"61","author":"Nadimi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2013.04.007","article-title":"Feasibility Study on the Spatial and Temporal Movement of Samburu\u2019s Cattle and Wildlife in Kenya using GPS\u00a0Radio-tracking, Remote Sensing and GIS","volume":"111","author":"Raizman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.25518\/1780-4507.13058","article-title":"A Review on the Use of Sensors to Monitor Cattle Jaw Movements and Behavior When Grazing","volume":"20","author":"Andriamandroso","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Agron. Soci\u00c9T\u00c9 Environ."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Q., Liu, Z., and Xiao, J. (2018, January 12\u201314). A Data Collection Collar for Vital Signs of Cows on the Grassland Based on LoRa. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE 15th International Conference on e-Business Engineering (ICEBE), Xi\u2019an, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICEBE.2018.00041"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Panckhurst, B., Brown, P., Payne, K., and Molteno, T.C. (2015, January 13\u201315). Solar-powered Sensor for Continuous Monitoring of Livestock Position. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE Sensors Applications Symposium (SAS), Zadar, Croatia.","DOI":"10.1109\/SAS.2015.7133590"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Siror, J.K., Huanye, S., Wang, D., and Jie, W. (2009, January 25\u201327). Use of RFID\u00a0Technologies to Combat Cattle Rustling in the East Africa. Proceedings of the 2009 Fifth International Joint Conference on INC, IMS and IDC, Seoul, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/NCM.2009.146"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wamuyu, P.K. (2017). A Conceptual framework for Implementing a WSN\u00a0Based Cattle Recovery System in Case of Cattle Rustling in Kenya. Technologies, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/technologies5030054"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1007\/s11277-018-6055-0","article-title":"Real-time Livestock Tracking System with Integration of Sensors and Beacon Navigation","volume":"104","author":"Molapo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Wirel. Pers. Commun."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Casas, R., Hermosa, A., Marco, \u00c1., Blanco, T., and Zarazaga-Soria, F.J. (2021). Real-time Extensive Livestock Monitoring using LPWAN\u00a0Smart Wearable and Infrastructure. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11031240"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dieng, O., Congduc, P., and Thiare, O. (2019, January 21\u201323). Outdoor Localization and Distance Estimation based on Dynamic RSSI\u00a0Measurements in LoRa Networks: Application to Cattle Rustling Prevention. Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Wireless and Mobile Computing, Networking and Communications (WiMob), Barcelona, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/WiMOB.2019.8923542"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, N., Pan, L., Chen, S., and Liu, B. (September, January 31). NB-IOT Estrus Detection System of Dairy Cows based on LSTM Networks. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE 31st Annual International Symposium on Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio Communications, London, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/PIMRC48278.2020.9217214"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Llaria, A., Terrasson, G., Arregui, H., and Hacala, A. (2015, January 17\u201319). Geolocation and Monitoring Platform for Extensive Farming in Mountain Pastures. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Conference on Industrial Technology (ICIT), Seville, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIT.2015.7125454"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barbedo, J.G.A., Koenigkan, L.V., Santos, P.M., and Ribeiro, A.R.B. (2020). Counting Cattle in UAV\u00a0Images\u2014Dealing with Clustered Animals and Animal\/background Contrast Changes. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20072126"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aburasain, R., Edirisinghe, E.A., and Albatay, A. (2020, January 3\u20134). Drone-based Cattle Detection Using Deep Neural Networks. Proceedings of the SAI Intelligent Systems Conference, London, UK.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-55180-3_44"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rivas, A., Chamoso, P., Gonz\u00e1lez-Briones, A., and Corchado, J.M. (2018). Detection of Cattle using Drones and Convolutional Neural Networks. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18072048"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Webb, P., Mehlhorn, S.A., and Smartt, P. (2017, January 16\u201319). Developing Protocols for Using a UAV to Monitor Herd Health. Proceedings of the 2017 ASABE Annual International Meeting, Spokane, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.13031\/aim.201700865"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ifacol.2019.12.560","article-title":"Use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles for Livestock Monitoring based on Streaming K-means Clustering","volume":"52","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ifac-Papersonline"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, X., and Xing, L. (2019, January 6\u20138). Reactive Deployment of Autonomous Drones for Livestock Monitoring based on Density-based Clustering. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Biomimetics (ROBIO), Dali, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBIO49542.2019.8961763"},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"24","article-title":"Evaluation of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVS) for detection of Cattle in the Cattle Fever Tick Permanent Quarantine Zone","volume":"67","author":"Goolsby","year":"2016","journal-title":"Subtrop. Agric. Environ."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rama.2016.04.005","article-title":"Use of an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle-mounted Video Camera to Assess Feeding Behavior of Raramuri Criollo Cows","volume":"69","author":"Cibils","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rangel. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1177\/0030727018781876","article-title":"Perspectives on the Use of Unmanned Aerial Systems to Monitor Cattle","volume":"47","author":"Barbedo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Outlook Agric."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105457","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2020.105457","article-title":"Agroview: Cloud-based Application to Process, Analyze and Visualize UAV-collected Data for Precision Agriculture Applications Utilizing Artificial Intelligence","volume":"174","author":"Ampatzidis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Valecce, G., Strazzella, S., Radesca, A., and Grieco, L.A. (2019, January 22\u201324). Solarfertigation: Internet of Things Architecture for Smart Agriculture. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Conference on Communications Workshops (ICC Workshops), Shanghai, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCW.2019.8756735"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dineva, K., and Atanasova, T. (2021). Design of Scalable IOT\u00a0Architecture Based on AWS for Smart Livestock. Animals, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani11092697"},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Dave, D., Naik, H., Singhal, S., Dwivedi, R., and Patel, P. (2021). Towards Designing Computer Vision-based Explainable-AI\u00a0Solution: A\u00a0Use Case of Livestock Mart Industry. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"(2021, December 01). Nofence Grazing Technology. Available online: https:\/\/www.nofence.no\/."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70528","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2879615","article-title":"A Review of Low-end, Middle-end, and High-end IoT\u00a0Devices","volume":"6","author":"Ojo","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buyya, R., Broberg, J., and Goscinski, A.M. (2011). Cloud Computing: Principles and Paradigms, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470940105"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1016\/j.protcy.2013.12.525","article-title":"Advantages and Challenges of Adopting Cloud Computing from an Enterprise Perspective","volume":"12","author":"Avram","year":"2014","journal-title":"Procedia Technol."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"(2021, December 01). Making Sense of IoT Platforms: AWS vs. Azure vs. Google vs. IBM vs. Cisco [online]. Available online: https:\/\/www.altexsoft.com\/blog\/iot-platforms\/."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kufakunesu, R., Hancke, G.P., and Abu-Mahfouz, A.M. (2020). A Survey on Adaptive Data Rate Optimization in LoRaWAN: Recent Solutions and Major Challenges. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20185044"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7171","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.2982745","article-title":"Analysis and Enhancement of the LoRaWAN\u00a0Adaptive Data Rate Scheme","volume":"7","author":"Finnegan","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1667\/0033-7587(2001)155[0572:TEOMRR]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The effects of 860 MHZ\u00a0Radiofrequency Radiation on the Induction or Promotion of Brain Tumors and other Neoplasms in Rats","volume":"155","author":"Zook","year":"2001","journal-title":"Radiat. Res."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Langendoen, K., Baggio, A., and Visser, O. (2006, January 25\u201329). Murphy Loves Potatoes: Experiences from a Pilot Sensor Network Deployment in Precision Agriculture. Proceedings of the 20th IEEE International Parallel & Distributed Processing Symposium, Rhodes Island, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPDPS.2006.1639412"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/1\/273\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:56:17Z","timestamp":1760169377000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/1\/273"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,30]]},"references-count":78,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s22010273"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22010273","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,30]]}}}