{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]],"date-time":"2026-06-04T16:14:47Z","timestamp":1780589687860,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,4]],"date-time":"2022-01-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1641254400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Open circuit failure mode in insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBT) is one of the most common faults in modular multilevel converters (MMCs). Several techniques for MMC fault diagnosis based on threshold parameters have been proposed, but very few studies have considered artificial intelligence (AI) techniques. Using thresholds has the difficulty of selecting suitable threshold values for different operating conditions. In addition, very little attention has been paid to the importance of developing fast and accurate techniques for the real-life application of open-circuit failures of IGBT fault diagnosis. To achieve high classification accuracy and reduced computation time, a fault diagnosis framework with a combination of the AC-side three-phase current, and the upper and lower bridges\u2019 currents of the MMCs to automatically classify health conditions of MMCs is proposed. In this framework, the principal component analysis (PCA) is used for feature extraction. Then, two classification algorithms\u2014multiclass support vector machine (SVM) based on error-correcting output codes (ECOC) and multinomial logistic regression (MLR)\u2014are used for classification. The effectiveness of the proposed framework is validated by a two-terminal simulation model of the MMC-high-voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission power system using PSCAD\/EMTDC software. The simulation results demonstrate that the proposed framework is highly effective in diagnosing the health conditions of MMCs compared to recently published results.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22010362","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,9]],"date-time":"2022-01-09T23:08:26Z","timestamp":1641769706000},"page":"362","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Intelligent Fault Diagnosis Framework for Modular Multilevel Converters in HVDC Transmission"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Hosameldin O. A.","family":"Ahmed","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Brunel University London, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuexiao","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Brunel University London, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, UK"},{"name":"State Grid Sichuan Electric Power Research Institute of China, Chengdu 610094, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qinghua","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Brunel University London, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, UK"},{"name":"School of Mechatronic Engineering, Xi\u2019an Technological University, Xi\u2019an 710021, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohamed","family":"Darwish","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Brunel University London, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6248-2875","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Asoke K.","family":"Nandi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Brunel University London, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, UK"},{"name":"Visiting Professor, School of Mechanical Engineering, Xi\u2019an Jiaotong University, Xi\u2019an 710049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2553","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2010.2049719","article-title":"Recent advances and industrial applications of multilevel converters","volume":"57","author":"Kouro","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. 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