{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,21]],"date-time":"2026-03-21T20:04:51Z","timestamp":1774123491636,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,7]],"date-time":"2022-01-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1641513600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper presents a method for optimal pressure sensor placement in water distribution networks using information theory. The criterion for selecting the network nodes where to place the pressure sensors was that they provide the most useful information for locating leaks in the network. Considering that the node pressures measured by the sensors can be correlated (mutual information), a subset of sensor nodes in the network was chosen. The relevance of information was maximized, and information redundancy was minimized simultaneously. The selection of the nodes where to place the sensors was performed on datasets of pressure changes caused by multiple leak scenarios, which were synthetically generated by simulation using the EPANET software application. In order to select the optimal subset of nodes, the candidate nodes were ranked using a heuristic algorithm with quadratic computational cost, which made it time-efficient compared to other sensor placement algorithms. The sensor placement algorithm was implemented in MATLAB and tested on the Hanoi network. It was verified by exhaustive analysis that the selected nodes were the best combination to place the sensors and detect leaks.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22020443","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,9]],"date-time":"2022-01-09T23:08:26Z","timestamp":1641769706000},"page":"443","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":37,"title":["Pressure Sensor Placement for Leak Localization in Water Distribution Networks Using Information Theory"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3995-8091","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ildeberto","family":"Santos-Ruiz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"TURIX-Dynamics Diagnosis and Control Group, Tecnol\u00f3gico Nacional de M\u00e9xico, I.T. Tuxtla Guti\u00e9rrez, Carretera Panamericana km 1080 S\/N, Tuxtla Gutierrez 29050, Mexico"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8724-335X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francisco-Ronay","family":"L\u00f3pez-Estrada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TURIX-Dynamics Diagnosis and Control Group, Tecnol\u00f3gico Nacional de M\u00e9xico, I.T. Tuxtla Guti\u00e9rrez, Carretera Panamericana km 1080 S\/N, Tuxtla Gutierrez 29050, Mexico"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6364-6429","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vicen\u00e7","family":"Puig","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institut de Rob\u00f2tica i Inform\u00e0tica Industrial, CSIC-UPC, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Catalunya, C\/. Llorens i Artigas 4-6, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3382-8213","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guillermo","family":"Valencia-Palomo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tecnol\u00f3gico Nacional de M\u00e9xico, I.T. Hermosillo, Av. Tecnol\u00f3gico y Perif\u00e9rico Poniente S\/N, Hermosillo 83170, Mexico"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1204-2251","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"H\u00e9ctor-Ricardo","family":"Hern\u00e1ndez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TURIX-Dynamics Diagnosis and Control Group, Tecnol\u00f3gico Nacional de M\u00e9xico, I.T. Tuxtla Guti\u00e9rrez, Carretera Panamericana km 1080 S\/N, Tuxtla Gutierrez 29050, Mexico"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aei.2018.02.004","article-title":"Robust sensor placement for pipeline monitoring: Mixed integer and greedy optimization","volume":"36","author":"Sela","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Eng. Inform."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Puig, V., Ocampo-Mart\u00ednez, C., P\u00e9rez, R., Cembrano, G., Quevedo, J., and Escobet, T. (2017). Real-Time Monitoring and Operational Control of Drinking-Water Systems, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-50751-4"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1109\/MCS.2014.2320336","article-title":"Leak localization in water networks: A model-based methodology using pressure sensors applied to a real network in Barcelona [applications of control]","volume":"34","author":"Sanz","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Control Syst. Mag."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0000037","article-title":"Optimal Meter Placement for Water Distribution System State Estimation","volume":"136","author":"Kang","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Water Resour. Plan. Manag."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santos-Ruiz, I., L\u00f3pez-Estrada, F.R., Puig, V., and Blesa, J. (2019, January 18\u201320). Estimation of Node Pressures in Water Distribution Networks by Gaussian Process Regression. Proceedings of the 4th Conference on Control and Fault Tolerant Systems (SysTol\u201919), Casablanca, Morocco.","DOI":"10.1109\/SYSTOL.2019.8864793"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mankad, J., Natarajan, B., and Srinivasan, B. (ISA Trans., 2021). Integrated approach for optimal sensor placement and state estimation: A case study on water distribution networks, ISA Trans., in\u00a0press.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isatra.2021.06.004"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6171","DOI":"10.1002\/2016WR018944","article-title":"A proposal of optimal sampling design using a modularity strategy","volume":"52","author":"Simone","year":"2016","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04019070","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0001150","article-title":"Efficient Technique for Pipe Roughness Calibration and Sensor Placement for Water Distribution Systems","volume":"146","author":"Hos","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Water Resour. Plan. Manag."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9496(1998)124:4(192)","article-title":"Detecting Accidental Contaminations in Municipal Water Networks","volume":"124","author":"Kessler","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Water Resour. Plan. Manag."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1219","DOI":"10.1007\/s11269-010-9674-0","article-title":"A Security-Oriented Manual Quality Sampling Methodology for Water Systems","volume":"25","author":"Eliades","year":"2011","journal-title":"Water Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vaidya, U., and Fardad, M. (2013, January 17\u201319). On optimal sensor placement for mitigation of vulnerabilities to cyber attacks in large-scale networks. Proceedings of the 2013 European Control Conference (ECC), Zurich, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.23919\/ECC.2013.6669723"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2671","DOI":"10.1007\/s11269-016-1309-7","article-title":"Risk Based Analysis for Contamination Event Selection and Optimal Sensor Placement for Intermittent Water Distribution Network Security","volume":"30","author":"Rathi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Water Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2177","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2016.2569413","article-title":"On cost-efficient sensor placement for contaminant detection in water distribution systems","volume":"12","author":"Zeng","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ins.2018.06.055","article-title":"Modified NSGA-III for sensor placement in water distribution system","volume":"509","author":"Hu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04020086","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0001293","article-title":"Risk-Based Models for Optimal Sensor Location Problems in Water Networks","volume":"146","author":"Hooshmand","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Water Resour. Plan. Manag."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conengprac.2017.03.003","article-title":"Optimal pressure sensor placement and assessment for leak location using a relaxed isolation index: Application to the Barcelona water network","volume":"63","author":"Puig","year":"2017","journal-title":"Control Eng. Pract."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Soldevila, A., Blesa, J., Fernandez-Canti, R.M., Tornil-Sin, S., and Puig, V. (2019). Data-Driven Approach for Leak Localization in Water Distribution Networks Using Pressure Sensors and Spatial Interpolation. Water, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/w11071500"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Scozzari, A., Mounce, S., Han, D., Soldovieri, F., and Solomatine, D. (2021). Review of Techniques for Optimal Placement of Pressure and Flow Sensors for Leak\/Burst Detection and Localisation in Water Distribution Systems. ICT for Smart Water Systems: Measurements and Data Science, Springer International Publishing."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1663","DOI":"10.2166\/ws.2017.069","article-title":"Risk-based sensor placement methods for burst\/leak detection in water distribution systems","volume":"17","author":"Forconi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Water Sci. Technol. Water Supply"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Venkateswaran, P., Han, Q., Eguchi, R.T., and Venkatasubramanian, N. (2018, January 11\u201313). Impact driven sensor placement for leak detection in community water networks. Proceedings of the 2018 ACM\/IEEE 9th International Conference on Cyber-Physical Systems (ICCPS), Porto, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCPS.2018.00016"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14984","DOI":"10.3390\/s131114984","article-title":"Optimal sensor placement for leak location in water distribution networks using genetic algorithms","volume":"13","author":"Casillas","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conengprac.2011.06.004","article-title":"Methodology for leakage isolation using pressure sensitivity analysis in water distribution networks","volume":"19","author":"Puig","year":"2011","journal-title":"Control Eng. Pract."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qui\u00f1ones-Grueiro, M., Verde, C., and Llanes-Santiago, O. (2019, January 18\u201320). Multi-objective sensor placement for leakage detection and localization in water distribution networks. Proceedings of the 4th Conference on Control and Fault Tolerant Systems (SysToL\u201919), Casablanca, Morocco.","DOI":"10.1109\/SYSTOL.2019.8864746"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.2166\/ws.2014.037","article-title":"Sensor placement for leak detection and location in water distribution networks","volume":"14","author":"Sarrate","year":"2014","journal-title":"Water Sci. Technol. Water Supply"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.2166\/hydro.2020.158","article-title":"Optimal sensor placement for pipe burst detection in water distribution systems using cost\u2013benefit analysis","volume":"22","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hydroinform."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04020088","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0001298","article-title":"Optimizing Sensor Placement and Quantity for Pipe Burst Detection in a Water Distribution Network","volume":"146","author":"Cheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Water Resour. Plan. Manag."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ponti, A., Candelieri, A., and Archetti, F. (2021). A New Evolutionary Approach to Optimal Sensor Placement in Water Distribution Networks. Water, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/w13121625"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6496","DOI":"10.3390\/w7116496","article-title":"Optimal sensor placement for leak location in water distribution networks using evolutionary algorithms","volume":"7","author":"Casillas","year":"2015","journal-title":"Water"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.2166\/hydro.2015.021","article-title":"Robust sensor placement for leak location: Analysis and design","volume":"18","author":"Blesa","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Hydroinform."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Thomas, M., and Cover, J.A.T. (2006). Elements of Information Theory, Wiley-Interscience. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cooper, J.P., and Robinson, L. (2017). Computer Modeling of Water Distribution Systems, American Water Works Association, AWWA. [4th ed.]. Manual of Water Supply Practices\u2014M32.","DOI":"10.12999\/AWWA.M32ed4"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1142\/S0219720005001004","article-title":"Minimum redundancy feature selection from microarray gene expression data","volume":"3","author":"Ding","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Bioinform. Comput. Biol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1029\/WR026i004p00539","article-title":"A two-phase decomposition method for optimal design of looped water distribution networks","volume":"26","author":"Fujiwara","year":"1990","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alves, D., Blesa, J., Duviella, E., and Rajaoarisoa, L. (2021). Robust Data-Driven Leak Localization in Water Distribution Networks Using Pressure Measurements and Topological Information. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21227551"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Rossman, L.A., Woo, H., Tryby, M., Shang, F., Janke, R., and Haxton, T. (2020). EPANET 2.2 User Manual, Technical Report EPA\/600\/R-20\/133."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Eliades, D.G., Kyriakou, M., Vrachimis, S., and Polycarpou, M.M. (2016, January 7\u20139). EPANET-MATLAB Toolkit: An Open-Source Software for Interfacing EPANET with MATLAB. Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Computing and Control for the Water Industry (CCWI), Amsterdam, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ifacol.2015.09.531","article-title":"Leak localization in water distribution networks using pressure residuals and classifiers","volume":"48","author":"Busson","year":"2015","journal-title":"IFAC-PapersOnLine"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16697","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ifacol.2020.12.1113","article-title":"Leak localization in water distribution networks using classifiers with cosenoidal features","volume":"53","author":"Blesa","year":"2020","journal-title":"IFAC-PapersOnLine"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compchemeng.2017.09.002","article-title":"Sensor placement for classifier-based leak localization in water distribution networks using hybrid feature selection","volume":"108","author":"Soldevila","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Chem. Eng."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/2\/443\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T13:27:04Z","timestamp":1760362024000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/2\/443"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,7]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s22020443"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22020443","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,7]]}}}