{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,17]],"date-time":"2026-07-17T14:50:37Z","timestamp":1784299837215,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,12]],"date-time":"2022-01-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1641945600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["52106221, 62005267"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52106221, 62005267"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Scientific Instrument Developing Project of the Chinese Academy of Sciences","award":["YJKYYQ20190037"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["YJKYYQ20190037"]}]},{"name":"Second Comprehensive Scientific Investigation of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau","award":["2019QZKK020802"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019QZKK020802"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["WUT:2021IVA016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["WUT:2021IVA016"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Startup funding of Wuhan University of Technology","award":["40120607"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["40120607"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A compact, sensitive laser-based absorption sensor for multispecies monitoring of methane (CH4), acetylene (C2H2) and ammonia (NH3) was developed using a compact multipass gas cell. The gas cell is 8.8 cm long and has an effective optical path length of 3.0 m with a sampling volume of 75 mL. The sensor is composed of three fiber-coupled distributed feedback lasers operating near 1512 nm, 1532 nm and 1654 nm, an InGaAs photodetector and a custom-designed software for data acquisition, signal processing and display. The lasers were scanned over the target absorption features at 1 Hz. First-harmonic-normalized wavelength modulation spectroscopy (f = 3 kHz) with the second harmonic detection (WMS-2f\/1f) is employed to eliminate the unwanted power fluctuations of the transmitted laser caused by aerosol\/particles scattering, absorption and beam-steering. The multispecies sensor has excellent linear responses (R2 &gt; 0.997) within the gas concentration range of 1\u20131000 ppm and shows a detection limit of 0.32 ppm for CH4, 0.16 ppm for C2H2 and 0.23 ppm for NH3 at 1 s response time. The Allan\u2013Werle deviation analysis verifies the long-term stability of the sensor, indicating a minimal detection limit of 20\u201334 ppb were achieved after 60\u2013148 s integration time. Flow test of the portable multispecies sensor is also demonstrated in this work.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22020556","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,12]],"date-time":"2022-01-12T04:15:25Z","timestamp":1641960925000},"page":"556","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["A Laser-Based Multipass Absorption Sensor for Sub-ppm Detection of Methane, Acetylene and Ammonia"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Wei","family":"Duan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Hubei Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Automotive Components, School of Automotive Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fuwu","family":"Yan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hubei Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Automotive Components, School of Automotive Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8795-9174","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yu","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hubei Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Automotive Components, School of Automotive Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Power Machinery and Engineering of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hui","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Applied Optics, Changchun Institute of Optics, Fine Mechanics and Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130033, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3531-0493","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Liuhao","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hubei Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Automotive Components, School of Automotive Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Applied Optics, Changchun Institute of Optics, Fine Mechanics and Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130033, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daxin","family":"Wen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hubei Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Automotive Components, School of Automotive Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wei","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hubei Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Automotive Components, School of Automotive Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gang","family":"Sheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hubei Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Automotive Components, School of Automotive Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9875-7500","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qiang","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Applied Optics, Changchun Institute of Optics, Fine Mechanics and Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130033, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/24\/1\/012004","article-title":"Optical gas sensing: A review","volume":"24","author":"Hodgkinson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8230","DOI":"10.3390\/s91008230","article-title":"Breath Analysis Using Laser Spectroscopic Techniques: Breath Biomarkers, Spectral Fingerprints, and Detection Limits","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.3389\/fphy.2020.00268","article-title":"Recent Advances in QEPAS and QEPTS Based Trace Gas Sensing: A Review","volume":"8","author":"Ma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Phys."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9616","DOI":"10.3390\/s91209616","article-title":"Photoacoustic Techniques for Trace Gas Sensing Based on Semiconductor Laser Sources","volume":"9","author":"Elia","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Du, Z.H., Zhang, S., Li, J.Y., Gao, N., and Tong, K.B. (2019). Mid-Infrared Tunable Laser-Based Broadband Fingerprint Absorption Spectroscopy for Trace Gas Sensing: A Review. Appl. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/app9020338"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pecs.2016.12.002","article-title":"Infrared laser-absorption sensing for combustion gases","volume":"60","author":"Goldenstein","year":"2017","journal-title":"Prog. Energy Combust. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proci.2010.09.007","article-title":"Applications of quantitative laser sensors to kinetics, propulsion and practical energy systems","volume":"33","author":"Hanson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Combust. Inst."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-021-09762-9","article-title":"The sustainability assessment of CO2 capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) and the conversion of cropland to forestland program (CCFP) in the Water-Energy-Food (WEF) framework towards China\u2019s carbon neutrality by 2060","volume":"80","author":"Xie","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"1","article-title":"Goals on the road: Instituional innovations in carbon peak and carbon neutrality","volume":"13","author":"Jia","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Chin. Econ. Bus. Stud."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"(2021, December 01). Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/ghgemissions\/overview-greenhouse-gases."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pecs.2019.05.003","article-title":"Soot formation in laminar counterflow flames","volume":"74","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prog. Energy Combust. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1016\/j.combustflame.2006.01.010","article-title":"Soot formation and temperature field structure in laminar propane-air diffusion flames at elevated pressures","volume":"145","author":"Bento","year":"2006","journal-title":"Combust. Flame"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pecs.2018.07.001","article-title":"Ammonia for power","volume":"69","author":"Xiao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Prog. Energy Combust. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, M.A.H., Rao, M.V., and Li, Q.L. (2019). Recent Advances in Electrochemical Sensors for Detecting Toxic Gases: NO2, SO2 and H2S. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19040905"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"897","DOI":"10.1177\/0003702816638295","article-title":"On-Chip Micro-Electro-Mechanical System Fourier Transform Infrared (MEMS FT-IR) Spectrometer-Based Gas Sensing","volume":"70","author":"Erfan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Spectmsc."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"De Biasio, M., Leitner, R., Krall, C., Krivec, M., Wilk, A., Mizaikoff, B., Waldner, R., Starmans, F., and Maier, D. (November, January 30). Ethylene Gas Sensing Using Non-Dispersive Infrared Spectroscopy. Proceedings of the 15th IEEE Sensors Conference, Orlando, FL, USA."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8005","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.57.008005","article-title":"Interband cascade laser absorption sensor for real-time monitoring of formaldehyde filtration by a nanofiber membrane","volume":"57","author":"Yao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Z., Cheong, K.P., Li, M., Wang, Q., and Ren, W. (2020). Theoretical and Experimental Study of Heterodyne Phase-Sensitive Dispersion Spectroscopy with an Injection-Current-Modulated Quantum Cascade Laser. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20216176"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15143","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.22.015143","article-title":"Heterodyne phase-sensitive detection for calibration-free molecular dispersion spectroscopy","volume":"22","author":"Acedo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23439","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.22.023439","article-title":"High frequency modulation capabilities and quasi single-sideband emission from a quantum cascade laser","volume":"22","author":"Hangauer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4143","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.24.004143","article-title":"Quartz-enhanced photoacoustic detection of ethylene using a 10.5 \u03bcm quantum cascade laser","volume":"24","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4048","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.44.004048","article-title":"Photothermal CO detection in a hollow-core negative curvature fiber","volume":"44","author":"Yao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pecs.2014.05.001","article-title":"Recent advances in laser absorption and shock tube methods for studies of combustion chemistry","volume":"44","author":"Hanson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Prog. Energy Combust. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6090","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.32.006090","article-title":"Laser diode wavelength-modulation spectroscopy for simultaneous measurement of temperature, pressure, and velocity in shock-heated oxygen flows","volume":"32","author":"Philippe","year":"1993","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5546","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.48.005546","article-title":"Calibration-free wavelength-modulation spectroscopy for measurements of gas temperature and concentration in harsh environments","volume":"48","author":"Rieker","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105603","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/21\/10\/105603","article-title":"Temperature sensing in shock-heated evaporating aerosol using wavelength-modulation absorption spectroscopy of CO2near 2.7 \u00b5m","volume":"21","author":"Ren","year":"2010","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1007\/s00340-011-4570-8","article-title":"A carbon monoxide and thermometry sensor based on mid-IR quantum-cascade laser wavelength-modulation absorption spectroscopy","volume":"103","author":"Vanderover","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. B"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1007\/s00340-015-6150-9","article-title":"Resolution-doubled one-dimensional wavelength modulation spectroscopy tomography for flame flatness validation of a flat-flame burner","volume":"120","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. B"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1007\/s00340-020-7382-x","article-title":"Multipass-assisted dual-comb gas sensor for multi-species detection using a free-running fiber laser","volume":"126","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. B"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13034","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.0c01931","article-title":"Three-Dimensional Printed Miniature Fiber-Coupled Multipass Cells with Dense Spot Patterns for ppb-Level Methane Detection Using a Near-IR Diode Laser","volume":"92","author":"Cui","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1007\/s00340-014-5828-8","article-title":"Single-QCL-based absorption sensor for simultaneous trace-gas detection of CH4 and N2O","volume":"117","author":"Ren","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. B-Lasers Opt."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1000","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2015.05.136","article-title":"Highly sensitive detection of methane by near-infrared laser absorption spectroscopy using a compact dense-pattern multipass cell","volume":"220","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B-Chem."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.saa.2019.05.023","article-title":"Simultaneous detection of atmospheric CO and CH4 based on TDLAS using a single 2.3 mu m DFB laser","volume":"222","author":"Shao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Spectroc. Acta Part A-Mol. Biomol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infrared.2019.103012","article-title":"Highly sensitive acetylene detection based on a compact multi-pass gas cell and optimized wavelength modulation technique","volume":"102","author":"Sun","year":"2019","journal-title":"Infrared Phys. Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jin, W.L., Zhang, H., Hu, M., Hu, M.P., Wei, Y.B., Liang, J.Q., Kan, R.F., and Wang, Q. (2021). A Robust Optical Sensor for Remote Multi-Species Detection Combining Frequency-Division Multiplexing and Normalized Wavelength Modulation Spectroscopy. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21041073"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2018.12.005","article-title":"A portable sensor for in-situ measurement of ammonia based on near-infrared laser absorption spectroscopy","volume":"115","author":"Guo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Opt. Lasers Eng"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127533","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2019.127533","article-title":"In situ, portable and robust laser sensor for simultaneous measurement of ammonia, water vapor and temperature in denitrification processes of coal fired power plants","volume":"305","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B-Chem."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166006","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijleo.2020.166006","article-title":"A numerical simulation of a near-infrared three-channel trace ammonia detection system using hollow core photonic crystal fiber","volume":"227","author":"Bai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Optik"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121591","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2021.121591","article-title":"High-temperature dual-species (CO\/NH3) detection using calibration-free scanned-wavelength-modulation spectroscopy at 2.3 \u03bcm","volume":"305","author":"Raza","year":"2021","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hanson, R.K., Spearrin, R.M., and Goldenstein, C.S. (2016). Spectroscopy and Optical Diagnostics for Gases, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-23252-2"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00692448","article-title":"Second-harmonic detection with tunable diode lasers\u2014Comparison of experiment and theory","volume":"26","author":"Reid","year":"1981","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. B"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107949","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2021.107949","article-title":"The HITRAN2020 molecular spectroscopic database","volume":"277","author":"Gordon","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"065102","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6501\/aa6a08","article-title":"Wavelength-stabilization-based photoacoustic spectroscopy for methane detection","volume":"28","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1080\/05704928.2014.903376","article-title":"A Review of Signal Enhancement and Noise Reduction Techniques for Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy","volume":"49","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Spectrosc. Rev."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/2\/556\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T14:02:05Z","timestamp":1760364125000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/2\/556"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,12]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s22020556"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22020556","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,12]]}}}