{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]],"date-time":"2026-04-07T20:09:10Z","timestamp":1775592550766,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":156,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,18]],"date-time":"2022-01-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1642464000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this review, a selection of works on the sensing of biomarkers related to diabetes mellitus (DM) and diabetic retinopathy (DR) are presented, with the scope of helping and encouraging researchers to design sensor-array machine-learning (ML)-supported devices for robust, fast, and cost-effective early detection of these devastating diseases. First, we highlight the social relevance of developing systematic screening programs for such diseases and how sensor-arrays and ML approaches could ease their early diagnosis. Then, we present diverse works related to the colorimetric and electrochemical sensing of biomarkers related to DM and DR with non-invasive sampling (e.g., urine, saliva, breath, tears, and sweat samples), with a special mention to some already-existing sensor arrays and ML approaches. We finally highlight the great potential of the latter approaches for the fast and reliable early diagnosis of DM and DR.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22030718","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,18]],"date-time":"2022-01-18T22:47:32Z","timestamp":1642546052000},"page":"718","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Colorimetric and Electrochemical Screening for Early Detection of Diabetes Mellitus and Diabetic Retinopathy\u2014Application of Sensor Arrays and Machine Learning"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5420-471X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Georgina","family":"Faura","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Eye Research, Department of Ophthalmology, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Kirkeveien 166, 0450 Oslo, Norway"},{"name":"Department of Medical Biochemistry, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, 0424 Oslo, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9093-0695","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gerard","family":"Boix-Lemonche","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Eye Research, Department of Ophthalmology, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Kirkeveien 166, 0450 Oslo, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Anne Kristin","family":"Holmeide","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sharelab, Biozep AS, Oslo Science Park, Gaustadalleen 21, 0349 Oslo, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rasa","family":"Verkauskiene","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Endocrinology, Medical Academy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, LT-50009 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Vallo","family":"Volke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Institute of Biomedicine and Translational Medicine, University of Tartu, 19 Ravila Street, 50411 Tartu, Estonia"},{"name":"Institute of Biomedical and Transplant Medicine, Department of Medical Sciences, Tartu University Hospital, L. Puusepa Street, 51014 Tartu, Estonia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jelizaveta","family":"Sokolovska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, University of Latvia, Jelgavas Street 3, LV 1004 Riga, Latvia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2905-9252","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Goran","family":"Petrovski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Eye Research, Department of Ophthalmology, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Kirkeveien 166, 0450 Oslo, Norway"},{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Oslo University Hospital, 0450 Oslo, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-018-4769-x","article-title":"Skin autofluorescence predicts incident type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and mortality in the general population","volume":"62","author":"Fokkens","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2013.10.007","article-title":"Computer-aided diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy: A review","volume":"43","author":"Mookiah","year":"2013","journal-title":"Comput. 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