{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T08:17:27Z","timestamp":1790756247011,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":88,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,20]],"date-time":"2022-01-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1642636800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["62071389"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62071389"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Performance evaluation (PE) plays a key role in the design and validation of any target-tracking algorithms. In fact, it is often closely related to the definition and derivation of the optimality\/suboptimality of an algorithm such as that all minimum mean-squared error estimators are based on the minimization of the mean-squared error of the estimation. In this paper, we review both classic and emerging novel PE metrics and approaches in the context of estimation and target tracking. First, we briefly review the evaluation metrics commonly used for target tracking, which are classified into three groups corresponding to the most important three factors of the tracking algorithm, namely correctness, timeliness, and accuracy. Then, comprehensive evaluation (CE) approaches such as cloud barycenter evaluation, fuzzy CE, and grey clustering are reviewed. Finally, we demonstrate the use of these PE metrics and CE approaches in representative target tracking scenarios.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22030793","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,20]],"date-time":"2022-01-20T22:51:06Z","timestamp":1642719066000},"page":"793","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["Performance Evaluation Metrics and Approaches for Target Tracking: A Survey"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9704-3386","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yan","family":"Song","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Information Fusion Technology, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi\u2019an 710072, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5008-6015","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zheng","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Information Fusion Technology, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi\u2019an 710072, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0499-5135","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tiancheng","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Information Fusion Technology, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi\u2019an 710072, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9990-9163","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hongqi","family":"Fan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on ATR, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1109\/MCS.2012.2204808","article-title":"Tracking and data fusion: A handbook of algorithms (bar-shalom, y. et al; 2011)[bookshelf]","volume":"32","author":"Chong","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Control. Syst. Mag."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Blasch, E. (2001). Target Tracking Toolbox lecture notes and software to support EE716. [Ph.D. Thesis, Wright State University]."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2021, September 10). Available online: https:\/\/www.pdx.edu\/biomedical-signal-processing-lab\/signal-point-kalman-filters-and-the-rebel-toolkit."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1002\/0471221546.ch7","article-title":"The unscented Kalman filter","volume":"5","author":"Wan","year":"2001","journal-title":"Kalman Filter. Neural Net."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Paul, A.S. (2010). Sigma-point Kalman Smoothing: Algorithms and Analysis with Applications to Indoor Tracking. [Ph.D. Thesis, Oregon Health & Science University]."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.3182\/20090706-3-FR-2004.00084","article-title":"A software framework and tool for nonlinear state estimation","volume":"42","author":"Straka","year":"2009","journal-title":"IFAC Proc. Vol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Straka, O., Fl\u00eddr, M., Dun\u00edk, J., Simandl, M., and Blasch, E. (2010, January 26\u201329). Nonlinear estimation framework in target tracking. Proceedings of the 2010 13th International Conference on Information Fusion, Edinburgh, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIF.2010.5712076"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blasch, E.P., Straka, O., Dun\u00edk, J., and \u0160imandl, M. (2010, January 14\u201316). Multitarget tracking performance analysis using the non-credibility index in the nonlinear estimation framework (NEF) toolbox. Proceedings of the IEEE 2010 National Aerospace & Electronics Conference, Dayton, OH, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/NAECON.2010.5712932"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1109\/MAES.2017.160215","article-title":"The tracker component library: Free routines for rapid prototyping","volume":"32","author":"Crouse","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Aerosp. Electron. Syst. Mag."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1020008","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2266249","article-title":"An open source framework for tracking and state estimation (\u2019Stone Soup\u2019)","volume":"Volume 10200","author":"Thomas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Signal Processing, Sensor\/Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXVI"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"1101807","article-title":"Stone Soup: Announcement of beta release of an open-source framework for tracking and state estimation","volume":"Volume 11018","author":"Last","year":"2019","journal-title":"Signal Processing, Sensor\/Information Fusion, and Target Recognition XXVIII"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Costa, P.C., Laskey, K.B., Blasch, E., and Jousselme, A.L. (2012, January 9\u201312). Towards unbiased evaluation of uncertainty reasoning: The URREF ontology. Proceedings of the 2012 15th International Conference on Information Fusion, Singapore."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Xu, Z. (2021, January 22\u201323). Performance evaluation of business administration training room in application-oriented universities. Proceedings of the 2020 2nd International Conference on Computer Science Communication and Network Security (CSCNS2020), Sanya, China."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, G., Hui, G., Zhang, G., Hu, Y., and Zhao, Z. (2019). A Novel Comprehensive Evaluation Method of Forest State Based on Unit Circle. Forests, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/f10010005"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"15","article-title":"Application Research on the Model of the Performance Evaluation of Enterprise Informatization","volume":"12","author":"Li","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Inf."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Bar-Shalom, Y., Li, X.R., and Kirubarajan, T. (2004). Estimation with Applications to Tracking and Navigation: Theory, Algorithms and Software, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"77","article-title":"Survey of assignment techniques for multitarget tracking","volume":"3","author":"Popp","year":"2000","journal-title":"Multitarg.-Multisens. Tracking Appl. Adv."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Colegrove, S.B., Cheung, B., and Davey, S.J. (2003, January 8\u201310). Tracking system performance assessment. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference of Information Fusion, Cairns, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIF.2003.177339"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sheng, X., Chen, Y., Guo, L., Yin, J., and Han, X. (2018). Multitarget Tracking Algorithm Using Multiple GMPHD Filter Data Fusion for Sonar Networks. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18103193"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3452","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2011.2140111","article-title":"A Metric for Performance Evaluation of Multi-Target Tracking Algorithms","volume":"59","author":"Ristic","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kulmon, P., and Stukovska, P. (2018, January 20\u201322). Assessing Multiple-Target Tracking Performance Of GNN Association Algorithm. Proceedings of the 2018 19th International Radar Symposium (IRS), Bonn, Germany.","DOI":"10.23919\/IRS.2018.8448011"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Evirgen, E.A. (2016, January 16\u201319). Multi sensor track fusion performance metrics. Proceedings of the 2016 24th Signal Processing and Communication Application Conference (SIU), Zonguldak, Turkey.","DOI":"10.1109\/SIU.2016.7495685"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Gorji, A.A., Tharmarasa, R., and Kirubarajan, T. (2011, January 5\u20138). Performance measures for multiple target tracking problems. Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Information Fusion, Chicago, IL, USA."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Villiers, J.P., Focke, R.W., Pavlin, G., Jousselme, A.L., Dragos, V., Laskey, K.B., Costa, P., and Blasch, E. (2017, January 10\u201313). Evaluation metrics for the practical application of URREF ontology: An illustration on data criteria. Proceedings of the 2017 20th International Conference on Information Fusion (Fusion), Xi\u2019an, China.","DOI":"10.23919\/ICIF.2017.8009879"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garc\u00eda-Fern\u00e1ndez, \u00c1.F., Rahmathullah, A.S., and Svensson, L. (2021). A time-weighted metric for sets of trajectories to assess multi-object tracking algorithms. arXiv.","DOI":"10.23919\/FUSION49465.2021.9626977"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Rothrock, R.L., and Drummond, O.E. (August, January 30). Performance metrics for multiple-sensor multiple-target tracking. Proceedings of the SPIE Conference on Signal and Data Processing of Small Targets, San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"326","article-title":"Ambiguities in evaluating performance of multiple target tracking algorithms","volume":"1698","author":"Drummond","year":"1992","journal-title":"Proc. Spie Int. Soc. Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1340","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2006.314576","article-title":"Evaluation of estimation algorithms part I: Incomprehensive measures of performance","volume":"42","author":"Li","year":"2006","journal-title":"Aerosp. Electron. Syst. IEEE Trans."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Blackman, S., and Popoli, R. (1999). Design and Analysis of Modern Tracking Systems, Artech House Publishers."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246309","DOI":"10.1155\/2008\/246309","article-title":"Evaluating multiple object tracking performance: The clear mot metrics","volume":"2008","author":"Bernardin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eurasip J. Image Video Process."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Milan, A., Schindler, K., and Roth, S. (2013, January 23\u201328). Challenges of ground truth evaluation of multitarget tracking. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops, Portland, OR, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPRW.2013.111"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Pelletier, M., Sivagnanam, S., and Blasch, E.P. (2012, January 9\u201312). A track scoring MOP for perimeter surveillance radar evaluation. Proceedings of the 2012 15th International Conference on Information Fusion, Singapore."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Blasch, E.P., Straka, O., Yang, C., Qiu, D., \u0160imandl, M., and Ajgl, J. (2012, January 9\u201312). Distributed tracking fidelity-metric performance analysis using confusion matrices. Proceedings of the 2012 15th International Conference on Information Fusion, Singapore."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"3447","article-title":"LOCATA challenge-overview of evaluation measures","volume":"56","author":"Evers","year":"2008","journal-title":"Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1117\/12.960355","article-title":"Tracking performance evaluation-prediction of track purity","volume":"Volume 1096","author":"Mori","year":"1989","journal-title":"Signal and Data Processing of Small Targets 1989"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Blasch, E.P., and Valin, P. (2011, January 5\u20138). Track purity and current assignment ratio for target tracking and identification evaluation. Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Information Fusion, Chicago, IL, USA."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Blasch, E. (July, January 28). Fusion Evaluation Tutorial. Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Fusion, Stockholm, Sweden."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coraluppi, S., Grimmett, D., and de Theije, P. (2006, January 10\u201313). Benchmark Evaluation of Multistatic Trackers. Proceedings of the 2006 9th International Conference on Information Fusion, Florence, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIF.2006.301689"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Grimmett, D., Coraluppi, S., Cour, B., Hempel, C.G., Lang, T., Theije, P., and Willett, P. (July, January 30). MSTWG multistatic tracker evaluation using simulated scenario data sets. Proceedings of the 2008 11th International Conference on Information Fusion, Cologne, Germany."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guerriero, M., Svensson, L., Svensson, D., and Willett, P. (2010, January 26\u201329). Shooting two birds with two bullets: How to find Minimum Mean OSPA estimates. Proceedings of the 2010 13th International Conference on Information Fusion, Edinburgh, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIF.2010.5712056"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chang, F., Chen, Z., Wang, W., and Wang, L. (2009, January 5\u20137). The Hausdorff distance template matching algorithm based on Kalman filter for target tracking. Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE International Conference on Automation and Logistics, Shenyang, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICAL.2009.5262808"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1109\/LCOMM.2019.2954888","article-title":"A Computationally Efficient Approach for Distributed Sensor Localization and Multitarget Tracking","volume":"24","author":"Da","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Hoffman, J.R., and Mahler, R. (2002, January 8\u201311). Multitarget miss distance and its applications. Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Information Fusion. FUSION 2002, Annapolis, MD, USA."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3447","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2008.920469","article-title":"A Consistent Metric for Performance Evaluation of Multi-Object Filters","volume":"56","author":"Schuhmacher","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ristic, B., Vo, B.N., and Clark, D. (2010, January 26\u201329). Performance evaluation of multitarget tracking using the OSPA metric. Proceedings of the 2010 13th International Conference on Information Fusion, Edinburgh, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIF.2010.5712055"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Nagappa, S., Clark, D.E., and Mahler, R. (2011, January 5\u20138). Incorporating track uncertainty into the OSPA metric. Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Information Fusion, Chicago, IL, USA."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1117\/12.436960","article-title":"Scientific performance evaluation for distributed sensor management and adaptive data fusion","volume":"Volume 4380","author":"Ravichandran","year":"2001","journal-title":"Signal Processing, Sensor Fusion, and Target Recognition X"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1117\/12.436958","article-title":"User-defined information and scientific performance evaluation","volume":"Volume 4380","author":"Hoffman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Signal Processing, Sensor Fusion, and Target Recognition X"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1117\/12.395068","article-title":"Scientific performance metrics for data fusion: New results","volume":"Volume 4052","author":"Mahler","year":"2000","journal-title":"Signal Processing, Sensor Fusion, and Target Recognition IX"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Villani, C. (2009). Optimal Transport. Old and New, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-71050-9"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMCA.2004.824848","article-title":"Multitarget Miss Distance via Optimal Assignment","volume":"34","author":"Hoffman","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. Part Syst. Hum."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garc\u00eda-Fem\u00e1ndez, \u00c1.F., and Svensson, L. (2019, January 2\u20135). Spooky effect in optimal OSPA estimation and how GOSPA solves it. Proceedings of the 2019 22th International Conference on Information Fusion (FUSION), Ottawa, ON, Canada.","DOI":"10.23919\/FUSION43075.2019.9011259"},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Vu, T., and Evans, R. (2014, January 7\u201310). A new performance metric for multiple target tracking based on optimal subpattern assignment. Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Information Fusion (FUSION), Salamanca, Spain."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mei, L., Li, H., Zhou, Y., Li, D., Long, W., and Xing, F. (2020). Output-Only Damage Detection of Shear Building Structures Using an Autoregressive Model-Enhanced Optimal Subpattern Assignment Metric. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20072050"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lian, F., Zhang, G.H., Duan, Z.S., and Han, C.Z. (2016). Multi-Target Joint Detection and Estimation Error Bound for the Sensor with Clutter and Missed Detection. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16020169"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, W., and Han, C. (2018). Dual Sensor Control Scheme for Multi-Target Tracking. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18051653"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schubert, R., Kl\u00f6den, H., Wanielik, G., and K\u00e4lberer, S. (2010, January 26\u201329). Performance evaluation of Multiple Target Tracking in the absence of reference data. Proceedings of the 2010 13th International Conference on Information Fusion, Edinburgh, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIF.2010.5712054"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rahmathullah, A.S., Garc\u00eda-Fern\u00e1ndez, \u00c1.F., and Svensson, L. (2017, January 10\u201313). Generalized optimal sub-pattern assignment metric. Proceedings of the 2017 20th International Conference on Information Fusion (Fusion), Xi\u2019an, China.","DOI":"10.23919\/ICIF.2017.8009645"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xia, Y., Granstrcom, K., Svensson, L., and Garc\u00eda-Fern\u00e1ndez, A.F. (2017, January 10\u201313). Performance evaluation of multi-bernoulli conjugate priors for multitarget filtering. Proceedings of the 2017 20th International Conference on Information Fusion (Fusion), Xi\u2019an, China.","DOI":"10.23919\/ICIF.2017.8009710"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beard, M., Vo, B.T., and Vo, B.N. (November, January 31). OSPA(2): Using the OSPA metric to evaluate multitarget tracking performance. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Control, Automation and Information Sciences (ICCAIS), Chiang Mai, Thailand.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCAIS.2017.8217598"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2754","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2020.2986136","article-title":"A Solution for Large-Scale Multi-Object Tracking","volume":"68","author":"Beard","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Votruba, P., Nisley, R., Rothrock, R., and Zombro, B. (2001). Single Integrated Air Picture (SIAP) Metrics Implementation, Technical Report; Single Integrated Air Picture System Engineering Task Force."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"(2021, September 16). Available online: https:\/\/stonesoup.readthedocs.io\/en\/v0.1b7\/auto_examples\/Metrics.html."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/mcda.1469","article-title":"New Concepts and Applications of AHP in the Internet Era","volume":"19","author":"Shang","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Multi-Criteria Decis. Anal."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5314","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2013.03.038","article-title":"Development of a new technology product evaluation model for assessing commercialization opportunities using Delphi method and fuzzy AHP approach","volume":"40","author":"Cho","year":"2013","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Song, W., Wen, W., Guo, Q., Chen, H., and Zhao, J. (2020, January 6\u20138). Performance evaluation of sensor information fusion system based on cloud theory and fuzzy pattern recognition. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE International Conference on Information Technology, Big Data and Artificial Intelligence (ICIBA), Chongqing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIBA50161.2020.9276953"},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"1149","article-title":"Method of Safety Assessment about the Electric Power Supply Company Based on Cloud Gravity Center Theory","volume":"354","author":"Ma","year":"2012","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/AMR.430-432.803","article-title":"Air Base Damage Evaluation Using Cloud Barycenter Evaluation Method","volume":"430","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"599","article-title":"Equipment maintenance support capability evaluation using cloud barycenter evaluation method","volume":"11","author":"Gu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Telkomnika Indones. J. Electr. Eng."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012194","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/787\/1\/012194","article-title":"Safety Evaluation of Large-size Transportation Bridges Based on Combination Weighting Fuzzy Comprehensive Evaluation Method","volume":"787","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Iop Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, L., and Pan, Z. (2009, January 7\u20138). Fuzzy Comprehensive Evaluation Based on Measure of Medium Truth Scale. Proceedings of the 2009 International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Computational Intelligence, Shanghai, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/AICI.2009.400"},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"1","article-title":"Assessment of Building Energy Efficiency Standards Based on Fuzzy Evaluation Algorithm","volume":"173","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eng. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Delgado, A., Cuadra, D., Simon, K., Bonilla, K., and Lee, E. (2021). Evaluation of Water Quality in the Lower Huallaga River Watershed using the Grey Clustering Analysis Method. Int. J. Adv. Comput. Sci. Appl., 12.","DOI":"10.14569\/IJACSA.2021.0120156"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Delgado, A., Fernandez, A., Chirinos, B., Barboza, G., and Lee, E. (2021). Impact of the Mining Activity on the Water Quality in Peru Applying the Fuzzy Logic with the Grey Clustering Method. Int. J. Adv. Comput. Sci. Appl., 12.","DOI":"10.14569\/IJACSA.2021.0120141"},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"69","article-title":"Study on the Integrated Grey Clustering Method under the Clustering Coefficient with Non-Distinguished Difference","volume":"13","author":"Dang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Chin. J. Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"1773","article-title":"An Integrated Entropy Weight and Grey Clustering Method-Based Evaluation to Improve Safety in Mines","volume":"38","author":"Jiskani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Min. Metall. Explor."},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"3908","article-title":"A metric on the space of finite sets of trajectories for evaluation of multitarget-tracking algorithms","volume":"68","author":"Rahmathullah","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Rezatofighi, H., Nguyen, T., Vo, B.N., Vo, B.T., and Reid, I. (2020). How trustworthy are the existing performance evaluations for basic vision tasks?. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, J., Li, T., and Wang, X. (2021, January 14\u201317). State Estimation with Linear Equality Constraints Based on Trajectory Function of Time and Karush-Kuhn-Tucker Conditions. Proceedings of the 2021 International Conference on Control, Automation and Information Sciences (ICCAIS), Xi\u2019an, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCAIS52680.2021.9624523"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1109\/9.50348","article-title":"Target tracking problems subject to kinematic constraints","volume":"35","author":"Tahk","year":"1990","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Autom. Control."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1363","DOI":"10.1016\/j.automatica.2007.01.017","article-title":"State estimation for linear systems with state equality constraints","volume":"43","author":"Ko","year":"2007","journal-title":"Automatica"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1109\/7.993234","article-title":"Kalman filtering with state equality constraints","volume":"38","author":"Simon","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boyd, S., Boyd, S.P., and Vandenberghe, L. (2004). Convex Optimization, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511804441"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2927","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2013.2255045","article-title":"Modeling and state estimation for dynamic systems with linear equality constraints","volume":"61","author":"Xu","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1476","DOI":"10.1109\/TASE.2018.2882641","article-title":"Joint Smoothing and Tracking Based on Continuous-Time Target Trajectory Function Fitting","volume":"16","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Autom. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1330","DOI":"10.1109\/LSP.2021.3090271","article-title":"Target Tracking With Equality\/Inequality Constraints Based on Trajectory Function of Time","volume":"28","author":"Zhou","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Signal Process. Lett."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1109\/LCOMM.2018.2879478","article-title":"Single-Road-Constrained Positioning Based on Deterministic Trajectory Geometry","volume":"23","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Comm. Lett."},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"Li, T., and Fan, H. (2021). From Target Tracking to Targeting Track: A Data-Driven Approach to Non-cooperative Target Detection and Tracking. arXiv."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/3\/793\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:04:54Z","timestamp":1760133894000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/3\/793"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,20]]},"references-count":88,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s22030793"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22030793","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,20]]}}}