{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]],"date-time":"2026-03-13T15:00:45Z","timestamp":1773414045875,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]],"date-time":"2022-01-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1643241600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006769","name":"Russian Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["21-79-10139"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21-79-10139"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006769","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) are envisioned to become one of the new types of fifth\/sixth generation (5G\/6G) network users. To support advanced services for UAVs such as video monitoring, one of the prospective options is to utilize recently standardized New Radio (NR) technology operating in the millimeter-wave (mmWave) frequency band. However, blockage of propagation paths between NR base stations (BS) and UAV by buildings may lead to frequent outage situations. In our study, we use the tools of integral geometry to characterize connectivity properties of UAVs in terrestrial urban deployments of mmWave NR systems using UAV line-of-sight (LoS) blockage probability as the main metric of interest. As opposed to other studies, the use of the proposed approach allows us to get closed-form approximation for LoS blockage probability as a function of city and network deployment parameters. As one of the options to improve connectivity we also consider rooftop-mounted mmWave BSs. Our results illustrate that the proposed model provides an upper bound on UAV LoS blockage probability, and this bound becomes more accurate as the density of mmWave BS in the area increases. The closed-form structure allows for identifying of the street width, building block and BS heights, and UAV altitude as the parameters providing the most impact on the considered metric. We show that rooftop-mounted mmWave BSs allow for the drastic improvement of LoS blockage probability, i.e., depending on the system parameters the use of one rooftop-mounted mmWave BS is equivalent to 6\u201312 ground-mounted mmWave BSs. Out of all considered deployment parameters the street width is the one most heavily affecting the UAV LoS blockage probability. Specifically, the deployment with street width of 20 m is characterized by 50% lower UAV LoS blockage probability as compared to the one with 10 m street width.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22030977","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]],"date-time":"2022-01-27T22:01:57Z","timestamp":1643320917000},"page":"977","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Closed-Form UAV LoS Blockage Probability in Mixed Ground- and Rooftop-Mounted Urban mmWave NR Deployments"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7232-4157","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vyacheslav","family":"Begishev","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Applied Probability and Informatics, Peoples\u2019 Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), 117198 Moscow, Russia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4007-7187","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dmitri","family":"Moltchanov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Electronics and Communications Engineering, Tampere University, 33100 Tampere, Finland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4200-8954","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Gaidamaka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Electronics and Communications Engineering, Tampere University, 33100 Tampere, Finland"},{"name":"Laboratory of the Internet of Things and Cyber-Physical Systems, HSE University, 101000 Moscow, Russia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6368-9680","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Konstantin","family":"Samouylov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Applied Probability and Informatics, Peoples\u2019 Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), 117198 Moscow, Russia"},{"name":"Institute of Informatics Problems, Federal Research Center Computer Science and Control of Russian Academy of Sciences, 119333 Moscow, Russia"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1123","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2015.2495297","article-title":"Survey of Important Issues in UAV Communication Networks","volume":"18","author":"Gupta","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutorials"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"111","article-title":"Network-connected UAV communications: Potentials and challenges","volume":"15","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"China Commun."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2486","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2018.2874145","article-title":"Flexible and reliable UAV-assisted backhaul operation in 5G mmWave cellular networks","volume":"36","author":"Gapeyenko","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2059","DOI":"10.1109\/LWC.2020.3012552","article-title":"Hover or Perch: Comparing Capacity of Airborne and Landed Millimeter-Wave UAV Cells","volume":"9","author":"Petrov","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1518","DOI":"10.1109\/LWC.2021.3073014","article-title":"Latency-Sensitive Service Delivery With UAV-Assisted 5G Networks","volume":"10","author":"Pandey","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matthew, U.O., Kazaure, J.S., Onyebuchi, A., Daniel, O.O., Muhammed, I.H., and Okafor, N.U. (2021, January 23\u201325). Artificial Intelligence Autonomous Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) System for Remote Sensing in Security Surveillance. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE 2nd International Conference on Cyberspac (CYBER NIGERIA), Abuja, Nigeria.","DOI":"10.1109\/CYBERNIGERIA51635.2021.9428862"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, J.W., Lee, W., and Kim, K.D. (2021). An Algorithm for Local Dynamic Map Generation for Safe UAV Navigation. Drones, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/drones5030088"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, C., Xie, Z., and Tian, C. (2019). A QoE-Oriented Uplink Allocation for Multi-UAV Video Streaming. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19153394"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Bertizzolo, L., Tran, T.X., Buczek, J., Balasubramanian, B., Jana, R., Zhou, Y., and Melodia, T. (2021). Streaming from the Air: Enabling Drone-sourced Video Streaming Applications on 5G Open-RAN Architectures. IEEE Trans. Mob. Comput., accepted."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77089","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2989614","article-title":"SIDR: A Swarm Intelligence-Based Damage-Resilient Mechanism for UAV Swarm Networks","volume":"8","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xia, W., Polese, M., Mezzavilla, M., Loianno, G., Rangan, S., and Zorzi, M. (2019., January 10\u201313). Millimeter Wave Remote UAV Control and Communications for Public Safety Scenarios. Proceedings of the 2019 16th Annual IEEE International Conference on Sensing, Communication, and Networking (SECON), Boston, MA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/SAHCN.2019.8824919"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"3GPP (2019). NR; Multi-Connectivity; Stage 2 (Release 16), 3GPP. 3GPP TS 37.340 V16.0.0."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2021.3094225","article-title":"Performance Characterization and Traffic Protection in Street Multi-Band Millimeter-Wave and Microwave Deployments","volume":"21","author":"Moltchanov","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2657","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2021.3061906","article-title":"Joint Use of Guard Capacity and Multiconnectivity for Improved Session Continuity in Millimeter-Wave 5G NR Systems","volume":"70","author":"Begishev","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shahbazi, A., and Di Renzo, M. (2021, January 13\u201315). Analysis of Optimal Altitude for UAV Cellular Communication in Presence of Blockage. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE 4th 5G World Forum (5GWF), Montreal, QC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/5GWF52925.2021.00016"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5070","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2014.2331971","article-title":"Analysis of Blockage Effects on Urban Cellular Networks","volume":"13","author":"Bai","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Samuylov, A., Gapeyenko, M., Moltchanov, D., Gerasimenko, M., Singh, S., Himayat, N., Andreev, S., and Koucheryavy, Y. (2016, January 4\u20138). Characterizing Spatial Correlation of Blockage Statistics in Urban mmWave Systems. Proceedings of the IEEE GLOBECOM Workshops, Washington, DC, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/GLOCOMW.2016.7848859"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jain, I.K., Kumar, R., and Panwar, S. (2018, January 3\u20137). Driven by capacity or blockage? A millimeter wave blockage analysis. Proceedings of the 2018 30th International Teletraffic Congress (ITC 30), Vienna, Austria.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITC30.2018.00032"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gapeyenko, M., Samuylov, A., Gerasimenko, M., Moltchanov, D., Singh, S., Aryafar, E., Yeh, S., Himayat, N., Andreev, S., and Koucheryavy, Y. (2016, January 23\u201327). Analysis of human-body blockage in urban millimeter-wave cellular communications. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC.2016.7511572"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"ITU-R (2012). Propagation Data and Prediction Methods Required for the Design of Terrestrial Broadband Radio Access Systems Operating in a Frequency Range from 3 to 60 GHz, International Telecommunication Union."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6566","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2021.3075099","article-title":"Line-of-Sight Probability for mmWave-based UAV Communications in 3D Urban Grid Deployments","volume":"20","author":"Gapeyenko","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"3GPP (2020). Study on Channel Model for Frequencies from 0.5 to 100 GHz (Release 16), 3GPP. 3GPP TR 38.901 V16.1.0."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOM.1986.1096594","article-title":"Propagation Path Visibility Estimation for Radio Local Distribution Systems in Built-Up Areas","volume":"34","author":"Ogawa","year":"1986","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feng, Q., Tameh, E.K., Nix, A.R., and McGeehan, J. (December, January 27). WLCp2-06: Modelling the Likelihood of Line-of-Sight for Air-to-Ground Radio Propagation in Urban Environments. Proceedings of the IEEE Globecom 2006, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/GLOCOM.2006.917"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1732","DOI":"10.1109\/LCOMM.2018.2842763","article-title":"Analysis of Frequency-Dependent Line-of-Sight Probability in 3-D Environment","volume":"22","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Colpaert, A., Vinogradov, E., and Pollin, S. (2018). Aerial Coverage Analysis of Cellular Systems at LTE and mmWave Frequencies Using 3D City Models. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18124311"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1109\/LWC.2016.2521656","article-title":"Evaluation of Millimeter-Wave Line-of-Sight Probability With Point Cloud Data","volume":"5","author":"Nguyen","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"3GPP (2018). Study on Enhanced LTE Support for Aerial Vehicles, (Release 15), 3GPP. TR 36.777 V15.0.0."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Santalo, L. (1976). Integral Geometry and Geometric Probability, Addison-Wesley. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schneider, R., and Weil, W. (2008). Stochastic and Integral Geometry, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-78859-1"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Flanders, H. (1989). Differential Forms with Applications to the Physical Sciences, Dover Publications. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2012.02.005","article-title":"Distance distributions in random networks","volume":"10","author":"Moltchanov","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10124","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2017.2754543","article-title":"On the Temporal Effects of Mobile Blockers in Urban Millimeter-Wave Cellular Scenarios","volume":"66","author":"Gapeyenko","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/3\/977\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:08:41Z","timestamp":1760134121000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/3\/977"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]]},"references-count":33,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s22030977"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22030977","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]]}}}