{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T02:48:46Z","timestamp":1760150926005,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,28]],"date-time":"2022-01-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1643328000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Current developments and the need for high-performance devices that provide safe and reliable communications present a future perspective by using visible light as an alternative solution that can substantially improve road and pedestrian safety. The daily use of smartphones is imperative; thus one can build on this premise a system dedicated to the aforementioned problem. However, the problem of the visible light communication channel (VLC) is highly dynamic and becomes extremely unpredictable in terms of exposure to noise sources. Developing applications dedicated to direct communications with infrastructure and vehicles using portable devices is becoming a challenge and at the same time a necessary solution. The article proposes the shaping of an emission\u2013reception architecture dedicated to adaptive fuse light communications using OCC (optical camera communication) but also standard VLC communications using ambient light sensors via an Android application. This approach aims to provide a first step in shaping information-sharing applications using VLC communications. As far as we know, this approach has not been implemented in external VLC systems. The performance of the architecture and the application was demonstrated by practical tests that confirmed the capacity of the technology even if we are in the first stage.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22031023","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,29]],"date-time":"2022-01-29T01:43:27Z","timestamp":1643420607000},"page":"1023","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Analysis and Experiment of Wireless Optical Communications in Applications Dedicated to Mobile Devices with Applicability in the Field of Road and Pedestrian Safety"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6378-7670","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eduard","family":"Zadobrischi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computers, Electronics and Automation, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, \u201cStefan cel Mare\u201d University, No. 13 Str. Universitatii, 720229 Suceava, Romania"},{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Gh. Baritiu St. 26-28, 400027 Cluj-Napoca, Romania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Transportation Research and Innovative Technology Administration (2010). Frequency of Target Crashes for IntelliDrive Safety Systems, Technical Report."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"World Health Organization WHO (2021, November 14). The 10 Leading Causes of Death in the World, 2017 and 2018. Fact Sheet. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/the-top-10-causes-of-death."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ashraf, I., Hur, S., Shafiq, M., and Park, Y. (2019). Catastrophic factors involved in road accidents: Underlying causes and descriptive analysis. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0223473"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cjtee.2020.06.001","article-title":"Global road traffic injury statistics: Challenges, mechanisms and solutions","volume":"23","author":"Chang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chin. J. Traumatol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssci.2013.10.017","article-title":"Effect of GDP changes on road traffic fatalities","volume":"63","author":"Yannis","year":"2014","journal-title":"Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Komarnicka, A., and Murawska, A. (2021). Comparison of Consumption and Renewable Sources of Energy in European Union Countries-Sectorial Indicators, Economic Conditions and Environmental Impacts. Energies, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/en14123714"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2021, November 14). Mobility and Transport\u2014Curent Trends and Issues Transport in the European Union\u2014Edition 2020 from European Commission Transportation. Available online: https:\/\/www.consilium.europa.eu\/en\/council-eu\/configurations\/tte\/."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Corral, P., Rodr\u00edguez-Mas, F., Alonso, J.L., Ferrer, J.C., and Fern\u00e1ndez de \u00c1vila, S. (2020). A Low-Cost IEEE 802.15.7 Communication System Based on Organic Photodetection for Device-to-Device Connections. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20030714"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Palacios J\u00e1tiva, P., Rom\u00e1n Ca\u00f1izares, M., Azurdia-Meza, C.A., Zabala-Blanco, D., Dehghan Firoozabadi, A., Seguel, F., Montejo-S\u00e1nchez, S., and Soto, I. (2020). Interference Mitigation for Visible Light Communications in Underground Mines Using Angle Diversity Receivers. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20020367"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rabadan, J., Guerra, V., Rodr\u00edguez, R., Rufo, J., Luna-Rivera, M., and Perez-Jimenez, R. (2017). Hybrid Visible Light and Ultrasound-Based Sensor for Distance Estimation. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17020330"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2014.08.028","article-title":"A review on light-emitting diode based automotive headlamps","volume":"41","author":"Long","year":"2015","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, Y., Liu, Z., Zhou, X., and Zhong, B. (2017, January 27\u201328). Analysis of Urban Traffic Accidents Features and Correlation with Traffic Congestion inLarge-Scale Construction District. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Smart Grid and Electrical Automation (ICSGEA), Changsha, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSGEA.2017.110"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1375","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2019.2962514","article-title":"Reinforcement Learning for Joint Control of Traffic Signals in a Transportation Network","volume":"69","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1109\/LPT.2013.2297621","article-title":"A 3-Gb\/s Single-LED OFDM-Based Wireless VLC Link Using a Gallium Nitride \u03bcLED","volume":"26","author":"Tsonev","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3047","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2016.2554145","article-title":"LED Based Wavelength Division Multiplexed 10 Gb\/s Visible Light Communications","volume":"34","author":"Chun","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Light. Technol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cama-Pinto, D., Damas, M., Holgado-Terriza, J.A., G\u00f3mez-Mula, F., Calderin-Curtidor, A.C., Mart\u00ednez-Lao, J., and Cama-Pinto, A. (2021). 5G Mobile Phone Network Introduction in Colombia. Electronics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics10080922"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Careglio, D., Spadaro, S., Cabellos, A., Lazaro, J.A., Barlet-Ros, P., Gen\u00e9, J.M., Perell\u00f3, J., Agraz Bujan, F., Su\u00e1rez-Varela, J., and P\u00e0ges, A. (2021). Results and Achievements of the ALLIANCE Project: New Network Solutions for 5G and Beyond. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11199130"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Waqar, S., and P\u00e4tzold, M. (2021). Interchannel Interference and Mitigation in Distributed MIMO RF Sensing. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21227496"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saraereh, O.A., Ali, A., Khan, I., and Rabie, K. (2020). Interference Analysis for Vehicle-to-Vehicle Communications at 28 GHz. Electronics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics9020262"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Song, T., Lim, C., Nirmalathas, A., and Wang, K. (2021). Optical Wireless Communications Using Signal Space Diversity with Spatial Modulation. Photonics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/photonics8110468"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"8501898","article-title":"A new vehicle localization scheme based on combined optical camera communication and photogrammetry","volume":"2018","author":"Hossan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mob. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nakazawa, Y., Makino, H., Nishimori, K., Wakatsuki, D., and Komagata, H. (2013, January 24). Indoor positioning using a high-speed, fish-eyelens-equipped camera in visible light communication. Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Indoor Positioning Indoor Navigation, Montbeliard-Belfort, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2013.6817855"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, H.Y., Lin, H.M., Wei, Y.L., Wu, H.I., Tsai, H.M., and Lin, K.C. (2015, January 18\u201322). RollingLight: Enabling line-of-sight light-to-camera communications. Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual International Conference on Mobile Systems (ACM MobiSys), Florence, Italy.","DOI":"10.1145\/2742647.2742651"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uysal, M., Capsoni, C., Ghassemlooy, Z., Boucouvalas, A., and Udvary, E. (2016). Optical camera communications. Optical Wireless Communications, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-30201-0"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-opt.2014.0151","article-title":"Survey on optical camera communications: Challenges and opportunities","volume":"9","author":"Saha","year":"2015","journal-title":"IET Optoelectron."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zadobrischi, E., and Dimian, M. (2021). Inter-Urban Analysis of Pedestrian and Drivers through a Vehicular Network Based on Hybrid Communications Embedded in a Portable Car System and Advanced Image Processing Technologies. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13071234"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Du, X., Ang, M.H., and Rus, D. (2017, January 24\u201328). Car detection for autonomous vehicle: LIDAR and vision fusion approach through deep learning framework. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), Vancouver, BC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2017.8202234"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, Y., Wang, G., Xu, G., and Fu, G. (2014, January 5\u201310). Safety driving assistance system design in intelligent vehicles. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Biomimetics (ROBIO 2014), Bali, Indonesia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBIO.2014.7090740"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zamkah, A., Hui, T., Andrews, S., Dey, N., Shi, F., and Sherratt, R.S. (2020). Identification of Suitable Biomarkers for Stress and Emotion Detection for Future Personal Affective Wearable Sensors. Biosensors, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios10040040"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cailean, A.-M., Dimian, M., and Popa, V. (2020). Noise-Adaptive Visible Light Communications Receiver for Automotive Applications: A Step Toward Self-Awareness. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20133764"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Redmon, J., Divvala, S., Girshick, R., and Farhadi, A. (2016, January 27\u201330). You Only Look Once: Unified, Real-Time Object Detection. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2016.91"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, E., Tang, X., and Fu, B. (2018, January 16\u201317). A Modified Pedestrian Retrieval Method Based on Faster R-CNN with Integration of Pedestrian Detection and Re-Identification. Proceedings of the 2018 International Conference on Audio, Language and Image Processing (ICALIP), Shanghai, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICALIP.2018.8455703"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cahyadi, W.A., Chung, Y.H., Ghassemlooy, Z., and Hassan, N.B. (2020). Optical Camera Communications: Principles, Modulations, Potential and Challenges. Electronics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics9091339"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Av\u0103t\u0103m\u0103ni\u021bei, S.-A., Beguni, C., C\u0103ilean, A.-M., Dimian, M., and Popa, V. (2021). Evaluation of Misalignment Effect in Vehicle-to-Vehicle Visible Light Communications: Experimental Demonstration of a 75 Meters Link. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21113577"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1038\/s41377-019-0218-y","article-title":"Germanium\/perovskite heterostructure for high-performance and broadband photodetector from visible to infrared telecommunication band","volume":"8","author":"Hu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Light Sci. Appl."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) (2020). Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDS): Implications for Safety. Health Phys., 118, 549\u2013561.","DOI":"10.1097\/HP.0000000000001259"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1305","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.58.001305","article-title":"Characterization setup for event-based imagers applied to modulated light signal detection","volume":"58","author":"Joubert","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2020.3008413","article-title":"Event-based Vision: A Survey","volume":"44","author":"Gallego","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rahman, M.R., Adedara, K., and Ashok, A. (2020). Enabling Multiple Access in Visible Light Communication Using Liquid Crystal Displays: A Proof-of-Concept Study. Electronics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics9050826"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Skorupski, P., and Chittka, L. (2011). Photoreceptor Processing Speed and Input Resistance Changes during Light Adaptation Correlate with Spectral Class in the Bumblebee, Bombus impatiens. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0025989"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cailean, A., Cagneau, B., Chassagne, L., Popa, V., and Dimian, M. (2014, January 10). A survey on the usage of DSRC and VLC in communication-based vehicle safety applications. Proceedings of the IEEE 21st Symposium on Communications and Vehicular Technology in the Benelux (SCVT), Delft, The Netherlands.","DOI":"10.1109\/SCVT.2014.7046710"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shen, W., and Tsai, H. (2017, January 27\u201329). Testing vehicle-to-vehicle visible light communications in real-world driving scenarios. Proceedings of the IEEE Vehicular Networking Conference (VNC), Torino, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/VNC.2017.8275596"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Zhang, M., Zhou, H., Sun, Y., Wei, C., and He, W. (2019, January 5\u20138). A Long Distance Real-time DPSK Visible Light Communication System Based on FPGA. Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Optical Communications and Networks, Huangshan, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICOCN.2019.8934859"},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"20190191","article-title":"Some practical constraints and solutions for optical camera communication","volume":"378","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. Ser. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Teli, S.R., Matus, V., Zvanovec, S., Perez-Jimenez, R., Vitek, S., and Ghassemlooy, Z. (2020). Optical Camera Communications for IoT\u2013Rolling-Shutter Based MIMO Scheme with Grouped LED Array Transmitter. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20123361"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, S.K., Bae, M., and Kim, H. (2017). Future of IoT Networks: A Survey. Appl. Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/app7101072"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hasan, M.K., Chowdhury, M.Z., Shahjalal, M., Nguyen, V.T., and Jang, Y.M. (2018). Performance Analysis, and Improvement of Optical Camera Communication. Appl. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/app8122527"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Komorowski, P., Czerwi\u0144ska, P., Kaluza, M., Surma, M., Zagrajek, P., Sobczyk, A., Ciurapi\u0144ski, W., Piramidowicz, R., and Siemion, A. (2021). Frequency Division Multiplexing of Terahertz Waves Realized by Diffractive Optical Elements. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11146246"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, H.-K., Choo, J., and Kim, J. (2020). Multiplexed Passive Optical Fiber Sensor Networks for Water Level Monitoring: A Review. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20236813"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24567","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.24.024567","article-title":"Design, and implementation of a real-time CIM-MIMO optical camera communication system","volume":"24","author":"Huang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"1","article-title":"Experimental demonstration of RGB LED-based optical camera communications","volume":"7","author":"Luo","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics J."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.1109\/LPT.2018.2823784","article-title":"Multilevel intensity-modulation for rolling shutter-based optical camera communication","volume":"30","author":"Rachim","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"1","article-title":"Color-shift keying for optical camera communication using a rolling shutter mode","volume":"11","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics J."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34066","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.440342","article-title":"Improved optical camera communication systems using a freeform lens","volume":"29","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/JPHOT.2016.2545643","article-title":"Mobile phone camera-based indoor visible light communications with rotation compensation","volume":"8","author":"Cahyadi","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics J."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Incipini, L., Belli, A., Palma, L., Ballicchia, M., and Pierleoni, P. (2017). Sensing Light with LEDs: Performance Evaluation for IoT Applications. J. Imaging, 3.","DOI":"10.3390\/jimaging3040050"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"950704","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/950704","article-title":"A Review of IEEE 802.15.6 MAC, PHY, and Security Specifications","volume":"9","author":"Ullah","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7137406","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/7137406","article-title":"Experimental Performance Evaluation of Multihop IEEE 802.15.4\/4g\/4e Smart Utility Networks in Outdoor Environment","volume":"2017","author":"Sum","year":"2017","journal-title":"Wirel. Commun. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1186\/s40539-015-0022-0","article-title":"Overlapping PPM for band-limited visible light communication and dimming","volume":"2","author":"Gancarz","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Sol. State Light."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Teli, S.R., Zvanovec, S., and Ghassemlooy, Z. (2019, January 3\u20135). The first tests of smartphone camera exposure on optical camera communication links. Proceedings of the 2019 15th International Conference on Telecommunications (ConTEL), Graz, Austria.","DOI":"10.1109\/ConTEL.2019.8848559"},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Chua, J.B.Y. (2012). System and Method for Enhancing Light Emissions from Light Packages by Adjusting the Index of Refraction at the Surface of the Encapsulation Material. (8,089,083), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19750","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.26.019750","article-title":"Space-time multichannel adaptive filtering scheme for VLC color crosstalk equalization","volume":"26","author":"Pergoloni","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Le, T., Le, N.T., Jang, Y.M., Thithanhnhan, L., Nam-Tuan, L., and Min, J.Y. (2015, January 28\u201330). Performance of rolling shutter and global shutter camera in optical camera communications. Proceedings of the 2015 International Conference on Information and Communication Technology Convergence (ICTC), Jeju, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICTC.2015.7354509"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meneguette, R.I., Filho, G.P., Guidoni, D.L., Pessin, G., Villas, L.A., and Ueyama, J. (2016). Increasing intelligence in inter-vehicle communications to reduce traffic congestions: Experiments in urban and highway environments. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0159110"},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Roger, S., Mart\u00edn-Sacrist\u00e1n, D., Garcia-Roger, D., Monserrat, J.F., Kousaridas, A., Spapis, P., and Ayaz, S. (2020). 5G V2V Communication With Antenna Selection Based on Context Awareness: Signaling and Performance Study. IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst., 1\u20139."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cao, Z., Guo, H., Zhang, J., and Fastenrath, U. (2016, January 12\u201317). Multiagent-based route guidance for increasing the chance of arrival on time. Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Phoenix, AZ, USA.","DOI":"10.1609\/aaai.v30i1.9893"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4521","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2793306","article-title":"Vehicle-to-Vehicle Distance Estimation Using a Low-Resolution Camera Based on Visible Light Communications","volume":"6","author":"Tram","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mata-Rivera, M., Zagal-Flores, R., and Barr\u00eda-Huidobro, C. (2019). Text and Image Transmission and Reception Using Light from LEDs and a Light Sensor. Telematics and Computing. WITCOM 2019. Communications in Computer and Information Science, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-33229-7"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Masini, B.M., Bazzi, A., and Zanella, A. (2018). Vehicular Visible Light Networks for Urban Mobile Crowd Sensing. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18041177"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.1364\/PRJ.411863","article-title":"1.3 GHz E-O bandwidth GaN-based micro-LED for multi-gigabit visible light communication","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Photon. Res."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMC.1979.4310076","article-title":"A threshold selection method from gray-level histograms","volume":"9","author":"Otsu","year":"1979","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cyber."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1117\/1.1631315","article-title":"Survey over image thresholding techniques and quantitative performance evaluation","volume":"13","author":"Sezgin","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Electron. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"713","article-title":"A Fast Algorithm for Multilevel Thresholding","volume":"17","author":"Liao","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Inf. Sci. Eng."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/3\/1023\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:09:58Z","timestamp":1760134198000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/3\/1023"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,28]]},"references-count":73,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s22031023"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22031023","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,28]]}}}