{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,22]],"date-time":"2025-12-22T04:36:19Z","timestamp":1766378179271,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":19,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,11]],"date-time":"2022-02-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1644537600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Vlaio, Belgium","award":["HBC.2020.2073"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HBC.2020.2073"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>To enable today\u2019s industrial automation, a significant number of sensors and actuators are required. In order to obtain trust and isolate faults in the data collected by this network, protection against authenticity fraud and nonrepudiation is essential. In this paper, we propose a very efficient symmetric-key-based security mechanism to establish authentication and nonrepudiation among all the nodes including the gateway in a distributed cooperative network, without communicating additional security parameters to establish different types of session keys. The solution also offers confidentiality and anonymity in case there are no malicious nodes. If at most one of the nodes is compromised, authentication and nonrepudiation still remain valid. Even if more nodes get compromised, the impact is limited. Therefore, the proposed method drastically differs from the classical group key management schemes, where one compromised node completely breaks the system. The proposed method is mainly based on a hash chain with multiple outputs defined at the gateway and shared with the other nodes in the network.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22041403","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,13]],"date-time":"2022-02-13T20:34:45Z","timestamp":1644784485000},"page":"1403","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Symmetric-Key-Based Authentication among the Nodes in a Wireless Sensor and Actuator Network"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6006-7480","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thibaut","family":"Vandervelden","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering Sciences and Technology (INDI), Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), 1050 Brussels, Belgium"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0436-527X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ruben","family":"De Smet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics and Informatics (ETRO), Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), 1050 Brussels, Belgium"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5901-4218","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kris","family":"Steenhaut","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics and Informatics (ETRO), Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), 1050 Brussels, Belgium"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9965-915X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"An","family":"Braeken","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering Sciences and Technology (INDI), Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), 1050 Brussels, Belgium"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"2","article-title":"The TESLA broad-cast authentication protocol","volume":"5","author":"Perrig","year":"2002","journal-title":"RSA CryptoBytes"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1016598314198","article-title":"Spins: Security protocols for sensor networks","volume":"8","author":"Perrig","year":"2002","journal-title":"Wireless Netw."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lai, B.C., Hwang, D.D., Kim, S.P., and Verbauwhede, I. (2004, January 9\u201311). Reducing radio energy consumption of key management protocols for wireless sensor networks. Proceedings of the ISLPED\u201904: 2004 International Symposium on Low Power Electronics and Design, Newport Beach, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1013235.1013320"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1145\/1218556.1218559","article-title":"LEAP: Efficient security mechanisms for large-scale distributed sensor networks","volume":"2","author":"Zhu","year":"2006","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Shen, Y.Y., and Lee, S. (2010, January 6\u20138). A Cluster-Based Group Key Management Scheme for Wireless Sensor Networks. Proceedings of the 2010 12th International Asia-Pacific Web Conference, Busan, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/APWeb.2010.39"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, L., and Wang, X. (2010, January 2\u20134). 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