{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,20]],"date-time":"2026-03-20T20:31:07Z","timestamp":1774038667419,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":115,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,12]],"date-time":"2022-02-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1644624000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia","award":["UIDB\/05210\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/05210\/2020"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006003","name":"Fundaci\u00f3n General CSIC","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["0348\/CIE\/ 6_E"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0348\/CIE\/ 6_E"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006003","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Stroke leads to significant impairment in upper limb (UL) function. The goal of rehabilitation is the reestablishment of pre-stroke motor stroke skills by stimulating neuroplasticity. Among several rehabilitation approaches, functional electrical stimulation (FES) is highlighted in stroke rehabilitation guidelines as a supplementary therapy alongside the standard care modalities. The aim of this study is to present a comprehensive review regarding the usability of FES in post-stroke UL rehabilitation. Specifically, the factors related to UL rehabilitation that should be considered in FES usability, as well a critical review of the outcomes used to assess FES usability, are presented. This review reinforces the FES as a promising tool to induce neuroplastic modifications in post-stroke rehabilitation by enabling the possibility of delivering intensive periods of treatment with comparatively less demand on human resources. However, the lack of studies evaluating FES usability through motor control outcomes, specifically movement quality indicators, combined with user satisfaction limits the definition of FES optimal therapeutical window for different UL functional tasks. FES systems capable of integrating postural control muscles involving other anatomic regions, such as the trunk, during reaching tasks are required to improve UL function in post-stroke patients.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22041409","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,13]],"date-time":"2022-02-13T20:34:45Z","timestamp":1644784485000},"page":"1409","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":42,"title":["Usability of Functional Electrical Stimulation in Upper Limb Rehabilitation in Post-Stroke Patients: A Narrative Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9528-1463","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andreia S. P.","family":"Sousa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Rehabilitation Research\u2014Human Movement System (Re)habilitation Area, Department of Physiotherapy, School of Health, Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Dr. Ant\u00f3nio Bernardino de Almeida 400, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Juliana","family":"Moreira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Rehabilitation Research\u2014Human Movement System (Re)habilitation Area, Department of Physiotherapy, School of Health, Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Dr. Ant\u00f3nio Bernardino de Almeida 400, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1484-1893","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cl\u00e1udia","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Rehabilitation Research\u2014Human Movement System (Re)habilitation Area, Department of Physiotherapy, School of Health, Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Dr. Ant\u00f3nio Bernardino de Almeida 400, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"In\u00eas","family":"Mesquita","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Rehabilitation Research\u2014Human Movement System (Re)habilitation Area, Department of Functional Sciences, School of Health, Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Dr. Ant\u00f3nio Bernardino de Almeida 400, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Rui","family":"Macedo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Rehabilitation Research\u2014Human Movement System (Re)habilitation Area, Department of Physiotherapy, School of Health, Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Dr. Ant\u00f3nio Bernardino de Almeida 400, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Augusta","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Rehabilitation Research\u2014Human Movement System (Re)habilitation Area, Department of Physiotherapy, School of Health, Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Dr. Ant\u00f3nio Bernardino de Almeida 400, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7394-7604","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rubim","family":"Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Rehabilitation Research\u2014Human Movement System (Re)habilitation Area, Department of Physics, School of Health, Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Dr. Ant\u00f3nio Bernardino de Almeida 400, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2197","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(12)61689-4","article-title":"Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions, 1990\u20132010: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010","volume":"380","author":"Murray","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2567","DOI":"10.2147\/NDT.S320785","article-title":"Disability Status and Its Influencing Factors Among Stroke Patients in Northeast China: A 3-Year Follow-Up Study","volume":"17","author":"Lv","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Intercollegiate Stroke Working Party (2012). National Clinical Guideline for Stroke, Royal College of Physicians."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1279","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.32.6.1279","article-title":"Estimates of the Prevalence of Acute Stroke Impairments and Disability in a Multiethnic Population","volume":"32","author":"Lawrence","year":"2001","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2181","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.0000087172.16305.CD","article-title":"Probability of Regaining Dexterity in the Flaccid Upper Limb: Impact of Severity of Paresis and Time since Onset in Acute Stroke","volume":"34","author":"Kwakkel","year":"2003","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1693","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2008.02.022","article-title":"Estimating Minimal Clinically Important Differences of Upper-Extremity Measures Early After Stroke","volume":"89","author":"Lang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1080\/08990220.2017.1384721","article-title":"The role of the ipsilesional side in the rehabilitation of post-stroke subjects","volume":"34","author":"Silva","year":"2017","journal-title":"Somatosens. Mot. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelekin.2014.04.011","article-title":"Co-activation of upper limb muscles during reaching in post-stroke subjects: An analysis of the contralesional and ipsilesional limbs","volume":"24","author":"Silva","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Electromyogr. Kinesiol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1080\/08990220.2018.1484354","article-title":"Anticipatory postural adjustments in the shoulder girdle in the reach movement performed in standing by post-stroke subjects","volume":"35","author":"Silva","year":"2018","journal-title":"Somatosens. Mot. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"109","article-title":"Comparison of Changes in Upper and Lower Extremity Impairments and Disabilities after Stroke","volume":"26","author":"Johanne","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Rehabil. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.32.1.107","article-title":"Effect of Lesion Location on Upper Limb Motor Recovery After Stroke","volume":"32","author":"Shelton","year":"2001","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"389","article-title":"Is health-related-quality of life of stroke patients influenced by neurological impairments at one year after stroke?","volume":"46","author":"Franceschini","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Phys. Rehabil. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1840","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.0000019289.15440.F2","article-title":"Persisting Consequences of Stroke Measured by the Stroke Impact Scale","volume":"33","author":"Lai","year":"2002","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-008-1355-3","article-title":"The statistics of natural hand movements","volume":"188","author":"Ingram","year":"2008","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"European Stroke Organisation (ESO) Executive Committee, and ESO Writing Committee (2008). Guidelines for Management of Ischaemic Stroke and Transient Ischaemic Attack 2008. Cerebrovasc. Dis., 25, 457\u2013507.","DOI":"10.1159\/000131083"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"820","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2017.22036","article-title":"Guidelines for Adult Stroke Rehabilitation and Recovery","volume":"319","author":"Gittler","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA J. Am. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e98","DOI":"10.1161\/STR.0000000000000098","article-title":"Guidelines for Adult Stroke Rehabilitation and Recovery: A Guideline for Healthcare Professionals from the American Heart Association\/American Stroke Association","volume":"47","author":"Winstein","year":"2016","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-53815-4.00005-4","article-title":"Advances in the use of electrical stimulation for the recovery of motor function","volume":"194","year":"2011","journal-title":"Prog. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13643-017-0435-5","article-title":"Effectiveness of upper limb functional electrical stimulation after stroke for the improvement of activities of daily living and motor function: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"6","author":"Eraifej","year":"2017","journal-title":"Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"934","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2015.01.013","article-title":"Functional Electrical Stimulation Improves Activity After Stroke: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis","volume":"96","author":"Howlett","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1237","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.0000217417.89347.63","article-title":"Feedback and Cognition in Arm Motor Skill Reacquisition After Stroke","volume":"37","author":"Cirstea","year":"2006","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kristensen, M.G.H., Busk, H., and Wienecke, T. (2021). Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation improves Activities of Daily Living Post-Stroke: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Arch. Rehabil. Res. Clin. Transl., 100167. in press.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arrct.2021.100167"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Stroke Foundation (2021). Clinical Guidelines for Stroke Management, Stroke Foundation."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"(2021, December 20). ISO 9241-11; Ergonomic Requirements for Office Work with Visual Display Terminals (Vdts)\u2014Part 11: Guidance on Usability. Available online: http:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/acsd\/vt09\/ISO9241part11.pdf."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1375\/brim.9.2.103","article-title":"Neural Plasticity as a Basis for Motor Learning and Neurorehabilitation","volume":"9","author":"Seitz","year":"2008","journal-title":"Brain Impair."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"840","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.0000247943.12887.d2","article-title":"Postinfarct Cortical Plasticity and Behavioral Recovery","volume":"38","author":"Nudo","year":"2007","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2013.00887","article-title":"Recovery after brain injury: Mechanisms and principles","volume":"7","author":"Nudo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"975","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.29.5.975","article-title":"Neuromuscular Stimulation for Upper Extremity Motor and Functional Recovery in Acute Hemiplegia","volume":"29","author":"Chae","year":"1998","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1384","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.30.7.1384","article-title":"Electrical Stimulation of Wrist Extensors in Poststroke Hemiplegia","volume":"30","author":"Powell","year":"1999","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-003-1695-y","article-title":"Electrical stimulation driving functional improvements and cortical changes in subjects with stroke","volume":"154","author":"Kimberley","year":"2004","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-010-1502-y","article-title":"Physiological and methodological considerations for the use of neuromuscular electrical stimulation","volume":"110","author":"Maffiuletti","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"1","article-title":"Functional Electrical Stimulation Therapy for Restoration of Motor Function after Spinal Cord Injury and Stroke: A Review","volume":"19","author":"Popovic","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomed. Eng. Online"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2017.08.478","article-title":"Utilizing Physiological Principles of Motor Unit Recruitment to Reduce Fatigability of Electrically-Evoked Contractions: A Narrative Review","volume":"99","author":"Barss","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"718","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2020.00718","article-title":"Functional Electrical Stimulation Therapy for Retraining Reaching and Grasping After Spinal Cord Injury and Stroke","volume":"14","author":"Kapadia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"201","article-title":"Neuromuscular electrical stimulation for skeletal muscle function","volume":"85","author":"Doucet","year":"2012","journal-title":"Yale J. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1097\/01.wco.0000200544.29915.cc","article-title":"Motor learning: Its relevance to stroke recovery and neurorehabilitation","volume":"19","author":"Krakauer","year":"2006","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(04)00851-8","article-title":"Strategies for stroke rehabilitation","volume":"3","author":"Dobkin","year":"2004","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S225","DOI":"10.1044\/1092-4388(2008\/018)","article-title":"Principles of Experience-Dependent Neural Plasticity: Implications for Rehabilitation after Brain Damage","volume":"51","author":"Kleim","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1177\/1545968306298414","article-title":"Improvement of Arm Movement Patterns and Endpoint Control Depends on Type of Feedback During Practice in Stroke Survivors","volume":"21","author":"Cirstea","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neurorehabil. Neural Repair"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1191\/0269215502cr504oa","article-title":"Therapeutic electrical stimulation to improve motor control and functional abilities of the upper extremity after stroke: A systematic review","volume":"16","author":"Ijzerman","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clin. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1002\/oti.220","article-title":"Systematic Literature Review of Treatment Interventions for Upper Extremity Hemiparesis Following Stroke","volume":"14","author":"Urton","year":"2007","journal-title":"Occup. Ther. Int."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1080\/16501970410024190","article-title":"Relation between Stimulation Characteristics and Clinical Outcome in Studies Using Electrical Stimulation to Improve Motor Control of the Upper Extremity in Stroke","volume":"37","author":"Ijzerman","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Rehabil. Med."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"833862","article-title":"The Impact of Physical Therapy on Functional Outcomes after Stroke: What\u2019s the Evidence?","volume":"18","author":"Kwakkel","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1097\/00002060-200301000-00003","article-title":"Functional Magnetic Resonance Image Finding of Cortical Activation by Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation on Wrist Extensor Muscles","volume":"82","author":"Han","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-003-1405-9","article-title":"Functional MRI determination of a dose-response relationship to lower extremity neuromuscular electrical stimulation in healthy subjects","volume":"150","author":"Smith","year":"2003","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"963","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.20559","article-title":"Cortical and Subcortical Correlates of Functional Electrical Stimulation of Wrist Extensor and Flexor Muscles Revealed by Fmri","volume":"30","author":"Blickenstorfer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.21191","article-title":"Interaction of electrical stimulation and voluntary hand movement in SII and the cerebellum during simulated therapeutic functional electrical stimulation in healthy adults","volume":"33","author":"Christensen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/S1350-4533(02)00040-1","article-title":"Functional Electrical Stimulation and rehabilitation\u2014An hypothesis","volume":"25","author":"Rushton","year":"2003","journal-title":"Med. Eng. Phys."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1007\/s002219900269","article-title":"Changes in muscle responses to stimulation of the motor cortex induced by peripheral nerve stimulation in human subjects","volume":"131","author":"Ridding","year":"2000","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1271","DOI":"10.1097\/00001756-200207190-00011","article-title":"Time course of induction of increased human motor cortex excitability by nerve stimulation","volume":"13","author":"McKay","year":"2002","journal-title":"NeuroReport"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.1080\/09638280500534861","article-title":"Impact of intensity of practice after stroke: Issues for consideration","volume":"28","author":"Kwakkel","year":"2006","journal-title":"Disabil. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbmt.2011.01.023","article-title":"Movement therapy induced neural reorganization and motor recovery in stroke: A review","volume":"15","author":"Arya","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Bodyw. Mov. Ther."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1002\/mus.20758","article-title":"Neuromuscular electrical stimulation in neurorehabilitation","volume":"35","author":"Sheffler","year":"2007","journal-title":"Muscle Nerve"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2015.00238","article-title":"Recovery Potential After Acute Stroke","volume":"6","author":"Seitz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/S0074-7742(09)86004-2","article-title":"Meet the Brain Neurophysiology","volume":"86","author":"Rothwell","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clineuro.2011.12.053","article-title":"Overview of neurophysiology of movement control","volume":"114","author":"Rothwell","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1080\/08990220.2018.1500363","article-title":"Stroke rehabilitation and research: Consideration of the role of the cortico-reticulospinal system","volume":"35","author":"Silva","year":"2018","journal-title":"Somatosens. Mot. Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/S0079-6123(03)43024-0","article-title":"Locomotor role of the corticoreticular\u2013reticulospinal\u2013spinal interneuronal system","volume":"143","author":"Matsuyama","year":"2004","journal-title":"Prog. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2217","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.01189.2003","article-title":"Independent and Convergent Signals from the Pontomedullary Reticular Formation Contribute to the Control of Posture and Movement During Reaching in the Cat","volume":"92","author":"Schepens","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2229","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00342.2006","article-title":"Descending Signals from the Pontomedullary Reticular Formation Are Bilateral, Asymmetric, and Gated During Reaching Movements in the Cat","volume":"96","author":"Schepens","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2235","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.01381.2007","article-title":"Neurons in the Pontomedullary Reticular Formation Signal Posture and Movement Both as an Integrated Behavior and Independently","volume":"100","author":"Schepens","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1177\/1545968308328718","article-title":"Feasibility of Iterative Learning Control Mediated by Functional Electrical Stimulation for Reaching After Stroke","volume":"23","author":"Hughes","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neurorehabil. Neural Repair"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"774","DOI":"10.1177\/1545968310397200","article-title":"Accelerometer-Triggered Electrical Stimulation for Reach and Grasp in Chronic Stroke Patients: A Pilot Study","volume":"25","author":"Geraldine","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neurorehabil. Neural Repair"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2017.00186","article-title":"The Use of Functional Electrical Stimulation on the Upper Limb and Interscapular Muscles of Patients with Stroke for the Improvement of Reaching Movements: A Feasibility Study","volume":"8","author":"Tejada","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1109\/MCS.2007.914689","article-title":"Functional Electrical Stimulation","volume":"28","author":"Lynch","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Control Syst."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2010.07.025","article-title":"Peripheral electrical stimulation to induce cortical plasticity: A systematic review of stimulus parameters","volume":"122","author":"Chipchase","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1097\/jes.0b013e3180a0321b","article-title":"Central Contributions to Contractions Evoked by Tetanic Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation","volume":"35","author":"Collins","year":"2007","journal-title":"Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Robertson, V., Ward, A., Low, J., and Reed, A. (2006). Electrotherapy Explained: Principles and Practice, Butterworth Heinemann."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2399","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-011-2128-4","article-title":"Motor unit recruitment during neuromuscular electrical stimulation: A critical appraisal","volume":"111","author":"Bickel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Harvey, R.L., Macko, R.F., Stein, J., Winstein, C.J., and Zorowitz, R.D. (2009). Neuromuscular Eletrical Stimulation for Motor Restoration in Hemiplegia. Stroke Recovery and Rehabilitation, DemosMedical."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.bioeng.6.040803.140103","article-title":"Functional Electrical Stimulation for Neuromuscular Applications","volume":"7","author":"Peckham","year":"2005","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sousa, A.S., da Silva, C.I.C., Mesquita, I.A., Silva, A., Macedo, R., Imatz-Ojanguren, E., Hernandez, E., Keller, T., Moreira, J., and da Fonseca, P.F.P. (2021). Optimal Multi-Field Functional Electrical Stimulation Parameters for the \u201cDrinking Task\u2014Reaching phase\u201d and Related Upper Limb Kinematics Repeatability in Post stroke Subjects. J. Hand Ther.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jht.2021.05.002"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2020.10.135","article-title":"Optimal Multifield Functional Electrical Stimulation Parameters for the \u201cTurn on the Light\u201d Task and Related Upper Limb Kinematics Repeatability in Poststroke Subjects","volume":"102","author":"Sousa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2013.2239662","article-title":"Multi-Pad Electrode for Effective Grasping: Design","volume":"21","author":"Kostic","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"6059","article-title":"Evolution of surface motor activation zones in hemiplegic patients during 20 sessions of FES therapy with multi-pad electrodes","volume":"26","author":"Dedijer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Transl. Myol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-0003-9-66","article-title":"A multi-pad electrode based functional electrical stimulation system for restoration of grasp","volume":"9","author":"Maneski","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"E166","article-title":"Temporal and Spatial Variability of Surface Motor Activation Zones in Hemiplegic Patients During Functional Electrical Stimulation Therapy Sessions","volume":"41","author":"Keller","year":"2017","journal-title":"Artif. Organs"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salvendy, G. (2006). Usability Testing. Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics, John Wiley.","DOI":"10.1002\/0470048204"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rice, V.J.B. (2008). Human Factors in Medical Rehabilitation Equipment: Product Development and Usability Testing, Elsevier BV.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-032304853-8.50013-5"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fr\u00f8kj\u00e6r, E., Hertzum, M., and Hornb\u00e6k, K. (2000). Measuring Usability: Are Effectiveness, Efficiency, and Satisfaction Really Correlated?, Association for Computing Machinery.","DOI":"10.1145\/332040.332455"},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"2055668319862141","article-title":"A Foot Drop Compensation Device Based on Surface Multi-Field Functional Electrical Stimulation\u2014Usability Study in a Clinical Environment","volume":"6","author":"Zabaleta","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Rehabil. Assist. Technol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1870","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2014.04.027","article-title":"Feasibility Study of a Take-Home Array-Based Functional Electrical Stimulation System with Automated Setup for Current Functional Electrical Stimulation Users With Foot-Drop","volume":"95","author":"Prenton","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1080\/10749357.2019.1611221","article-title":"Methodological Considerations for Kinematic Analysis of Upper Limbs in Healthy and Post-Stroke Adults. Part II: A Systematic Review of Motion Capture Systems and Kinematic Metrics","volume":"26","author":"Mesquita","year":"2019","journal-title":"Top. Stroke Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.0000196940.20446.c9","article-title":"Task-Specific Training with Trunk Restraint on Arm Recovery in Stroke: Randomized Control Trial","volume":"37","author":"Michaelsen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1093\/ptj\/84.1.8","article-title":"Development and Validation of a Scale for Rating Motor Compensations Used for Reaching in Patients with Hemiparesis: The Reaching Performance Scale","volume":"84","author":"Levin","year":"2004","journal-title":"Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Raine, S. (2009). The Bobath Concept: Developments and Current Theoretical Underpinning, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781444314601"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1080\/165019702317242668","article-title":"Inter-rater reliability and validity of the stroke rehabilitation assessment of movement (STREAM) instrument","volume":"34","author":"Wang","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Rehabil. Med."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1093\/ptj\/65.2.175","article-title":"Investigation of a New Motor Assessment Scale for Stroke Patients","volume":"65","author":"Carr","year":"1985","journal-title":"Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.24.1.58","article-title":"Measuring Physical Impairment and Disability with the Chedoke-Mcmaster Stroke Assessment","volume":"24","author":"Gowland","year":"1993","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1360","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.31.6.1360","article-title":"Chronic Motor Dysfunction after Stroke: Recovering Wrist and Finger Extension by Electromyography-Triggered Neuromuscular Stimulation","volume":"31","author":"Cauraugh","year":"2000","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-510X(03)00169-2","article-title":"Chronic stroke motor recovery: Duration of active neuromuscular stimulation","volume":"215","author":"Cauraugh","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1562","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.74.11.1562","article-title":"Stroke Motor Recovery: Active Neuromuscular Stimulation and Repetitive Practice Schedules","volume":"74","author":"Cauraugh","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1589","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.0000016926.77114.A6","article-title":"Two Coupled Motor Recovery Protocols Are Better Than One: Electromyogram-Triggered Neuromuscular Stimulation and Bilateral Movements","volume":"33","author":"Cauraugh","year":"2002","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1080\/09638280701265539","article-title":"A home-based rehabilitation program for the hemiplegic upper extremity by power-assisted functional electrical stimulation","volume":"30","author":"Hara","year":"2008","journal-title":"Disabil. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2008.07.026","article-title":"Cortical effect and functional recovery by the electromyography-triggered neuromuscular stimulation in chronic stroke patients","volume":"442","author":"Shin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1177\/1545968308326428","article-title":"Bilateral Upper Limb Training with Functional Electric Stimulation in Patients with Chronic Stroke","volume":"23","author":"Chan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neurorehabil. Neural Repair"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiomech.2014.06.013","article-title":"Quantitative assessment based on kinematic measures of functional impairments during upper extremity movements: A review","volume":"29","author":"Torricelli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2015.11.026","article-title":"A clinically feasible kinematic assessment method of upper extremity motor function impairment after stroke","volume":"80","author":"Ozturk","year":"2016","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1179\/1743288X11Y.0000000006","article-title":"The use of inertial sensors system for human motion analysis","volume":"15","author":"Williams","year":"2010","journal-title":"Phys. Ther. Rev."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-0003-11-108","article-title":"Systematic review of Kinect applications in elderly care and stroke rehabilitation","volume":"11","author":"Webster","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9290(96)83335-5","article-title":"Accuracy of an electromagnetic tracking device: A study of the optimal operating range and metal interference","volume":"29","author":"Milne","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.sc.3101261","article-title":"Evaluation of upper extremity motor function tests in tetraplegics","volume":"40","author":"Seelen","year":"2002","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1177\/1545968310370748","article-title":"Kinematic Variables Quantifying Upper-Extremity Performance After Stroke During Reaching and Drinking from a Glass","volume":"25","author":"Murphy","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neurorehabil. Neural Repair"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1106","DOI":"10.1177\/1545968312448234","article-title":"Movement Kinematics During Drinking Task Are Associated with the Activity Capacity Level after Stroke","volume":"26","author":"Murphy","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neurorehabil. Neural Repair"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiomech.2013.12.013","article-title":"Kinematic analysis of upper extremity movement during drinking in hemiplegic subjects","volume":"29","author":"Kim","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1080\/10749357.2018.1551953","article-title":"Methodological Considerations for Kinematic Analysis of Upper Limbs in Healthy and Post-Stroke Adults. Part I: A Systematic Review of Sampling and Motor Tasks","volume":"26","author":"Mesquita","year":"2019","journal-title":"Top. Stroke Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.2522\/ptj.20070255","article-title":"Reproducibility and Minimal Detectable Change of Three-Dimensional Kinematic Analysis of Reaching Tasks in People with Hemiparesis After Stroke","volume":"88","author":"Wagner","year":"2008","journal-title":"Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref_108","unstructured":"Shumway-Cook, A., and Woollacott, M.H. (2017). Motor Control: Translating Research into Clinical Practice, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-0003-6-2","article-title":"Movement variability in stroke patients and controls performing two upper limb functional tasks: A new assessment methodology","volume":"6","author":"Thies","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1080\/00222895.2010.548422","article-title":"Reliability of Upper Extremity Kinematics While Performing Different Tasks in Individuals with Stroke","volume":"43","author":"Patterson","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Mot. Behav."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.3109\/02703181.2012.716506","article-title":"Comparison of \u201cLess Affected Limb\u201d Reaching Kinematics in Individuals with Chronic Stroke and Healthy Age-Matched Controls","volume":"30","author":"Finley","year":"2012","journal-title":"Phys. Occup. Ther. Geriatr."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"844","DOI":"10.1177\/1545968313491008","article-title":"Responsiveness of Upper Extremity Kinematic Measures and Clinical Improvement During the First Three Months After Stroke","volume":"27","author":"Murphy","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurorehabil. Neural Repair"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1177\/1545968313498514","article-title":"The Contribution of Kinematics in the Assessment of Upper Limb Motor Recovery Early After Stroke","volume":"28","author":"Hauret","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurorehabil. Neural Repair"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2303","DOI":"10.1161\/STROKEAHA.110.593368","article-title":"Validity of Movement Pattern Kinematics as Measures of Arm Motor Impairment Poststroke","volume":"41","author":"Subramanian","year":"2010","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelekin.2013.10.001","article-title":"Anticipatory postural adjustments during sitting reach movement in post-stroke subjects","volume":"24","author":"Pereira","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Electromyogr. Kinesiol."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/4\/1409\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:18:07Z","timestamp":1760134687000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/4\/1409"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,12]]},"references-count":115,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s22041409"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22041409","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,12]]}}}