{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]],"date-time":"2026-02-27T15:27:49Z","timestamp":1772206069672,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":88,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,13]],"date-time":"2022-02-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1644710400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005357","name":"Slovak Research and Development Agency","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["APVV-19-0401"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["APVV-19-0401"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005357","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100008530","name":"European Regional Development Fund","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ITMS code: 313011W988"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ITMS code: 313011W988"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100008530","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The whole Internet consists of thousands of autonomous systems that transfer data with one another. The BGP plays a significant role in routing, but its behaviour is essentially naive, trusting neighbours without authenticating advertised IP prefixes. This is the main reason why BGP endures various path manipulation attacks. Recently, conventional methods for securing BGP have been implemented, i.e., BGPSec with RPKI. However, these approaches are centralised with a single point of failure that may be compromised, invalidating the whole security mechanism. There have been multiple decentralised projects dealing with various mechanisms, mostly built on Ethereum and blockchain networks. Some with ambition to strengthen existing centralised mechanisms, others to replace them. In this article, we present the first comprehensive survey on blockchain solutions to enforce BGP security, with complex explanations of their contributions and a comparison with different aspects. We explain how blockchain technology can provide an alternative to prevent the false origin of IP prefixes or hijacking AS paths. Moreover, we describe new blockchain-based attacks that BGP would face after the inclusion of blockchain into the inter-domain routing. Finally, we answer the defined research questions and discuss the potential open issues for further study.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22041437","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,13]],"date-time":"2022-02-13T20:34:45Z","timestamp":1644784485000},"page":"1437","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Secure Inter-Domain Routing Based on Blockchain: A Comprehensive Survey"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2025-2163","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lukas","family":"Mastilak","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Informatics and Information Technologies, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Ilkovicova 2, 842 16 Bratislava, Slovakia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2976-607X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pavol","family":"Helebrandt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Informatics and Information Technologies, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Ilkovicova 2, 842 16 Bratislava, Slovakia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6622-526X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marek","family":"Galinski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Informatics and Information Technologies, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Ilkovicova 2, 842 16 Bratislava, Slovakia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1811-1580","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ivan","family":"Kotuliak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Informatics and Information Technologies, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Ilkovicova 2, 842 16 Bratislava, Slovakia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Rekhter, Y., and Gross, P. Application of the Border Gateway Protocol in the Internet, ISI, USC Information Sciences Institute. Available online: https:\/\/www.hjp.at\/doc\/rfc\/rfc1655.html."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wust, K., and Gervais, A. (2018, January 20\u201322). Do you need a blockchain?. Proceedings of the 2018 Crypto Valley Conference on Blockchain Technology (CVCBT), Zug, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVCBT.2018.00011"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comcom.2018.04.013","article-title":"The state of affairs in BGP security: A survey of attacks and defenses","volume":"124","author":"Mitseva","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Commun."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16440","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2967218","article-title":"Solutions to scalability of blockchain: A survey","volume":"8","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rekhter, Y., Li, T., and Hares, S. (2006). IETF RFC 4271 a Border Gateway Protocol (BGP-4), Internet Society.","DOI":"10.17487\/rfc4271"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giotsas, V., and Zhou, S. (2012, January 10\u201315). Valley-free violation in internet routing\u2014Analysis based on bgp community data. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC), Ottawa, ON, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC.2012.6363987"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Sriram, K., Montgomery, D., McPherson, D., Osterweil, E., and Dickson, B. (2022, January 15). Problem Definition and Classification of BGP Route Leaks. Available online: https:\/\/datatracker.ietf.org\/doc\/html\/rfc7908."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jin, J. (2018, January 27\u201330). BGP Route Leak Prevention Based on BGPsec. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE 88th Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC-Fall), Chicago, IL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/VTCFall.2018.8690840"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, S., Duan, H., Wang, Z., and Li, X. (2015, January 21\u201323). Route leaks identification by detecting routing loops. Proceedings of the International Conference on Security and Privacy in Communication Systems, Washington, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-28865-9_17"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1145\/3211852.3211862","article-title":"A survey among network operators on BGP prefix hijacking","volume":"48","author":"Sermpezis","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACM SIGCOMM Comput. Commun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Cloudflare (2022, January 15). BGP Hijacking Learning Objectives. Available online: https:\/\/www.cloudflare.com\/learning\/security\/glossary\/bgp-hijacking\/."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cho, S., Fontugne, R., Cho, K., Dainotti, A., and Gill, P. (2019, January 19\u201321). BGP hijacking classification. Proceedings of the 2019 Network Traffic Measurement and Analysis Conference (TMA), Paris, France.","DOI":"10.23919\/TMA.2019.8784511"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Cisco (2022, January 15). BGPStream\u2014BGPMON. Available online: https:\/\/bgpstream.com\/."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Siddiqui, A. (2022, January 15). BGP, RPKI, and MANRS: 2020 in Review. Available online: https:\/\/blog.apnic.net\/2021\/02\/05\/bgp-rpki-and-manrs-2020-in-review\/."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Cimpanu, C. (2022, January 15). Russian Telco Hijacks Internet Traffic for Google, AWS, Cloudflare, and Others. Available online: https:\/\/www.zdnet.com\/article\/russian-telco-hijacks-internet-traffic-for-google-aws-cloudflare-and-others\/."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Siddiqui, A. (2022, January 15). Another BGP Incident Impacts TWC, Rogers, Charter and Others. Available online: https:\/\/www.manrs.org\/2020\/07\/another-bgp-incident-impacts-twc-rogers-charter-and-others\/."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Sani, L. (2022, January 15). One Year of BGP (In)Security. Available online: https:\/\/blog.apnic.net\/2020\/07\/03\/one-year-of-bgp-insecurity\/."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bush, R., and Austein, R. (2022, January 15). The Resource Public Key Infrastructure (RPKI) to Router Protocol. Available online: https:\/\/www.hjp.at\/doc\/rfc\/rfc6810.html.","DOI":"10.17487\/RFC9286"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chung, T., Aben, E., Bruijnzeels, T., Chandrasekaran, B., Choffnes, D., Levin, D., Maggs, B.M., Mislove, A., van Rijswijk-Deij, R., and Rula, J. (2019, January 21\u201323). RPKI is coming of age: A longitudinal study of RPKI deployment and invalid route origins. Proceedings of the Internet Measurement Conference, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.","DOI":"10.1145\/3355369.3355596"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shrishak, K., and Shulman, H. (2020, January 27\u201330). Limiting the power of RPKI authorities. Proceedings of the Applied Networking Research Workshop, Virtual Event, Spain.","DOI":"10.1145\/3404868.3406674"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lepinski, M., and Sriram, K. (2017). BGPSEC Protocol Specification, Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). Available online: https:\/\/www.hjp.at\/doc\/rfc\/rfc8205.html.","DOI":"10.17487\/RFC8205"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.2018.1800171","article-title":"BGP with BGPsec: Attacks and Countermeasures","volume":"33","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Netw."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krupa, T., Ries, M., Kotuliak, I., and Bencel, R. (2021, January 27\u201329). Security Issues of Smart Contracts in Ethereum Platforms. Proceedings of the 2021 28th Conference of Open Innovations Association (FRUCT), Moscow, Russia.","DOI":"10.23919\/FRUCT50888.2021.9347617"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2543","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2018.2818623","article-title":"A survey on anonymity and privacy in bitcoin-like digital cash systems","volume":"20","author":"Khalilov","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2022, January 15). Hyperledger Fabric. Available online: https:\/\/www.hyperledger.org\/use\/fabric."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"(2022, January 15). R3 Corda. Available online: https:\/\/www.r3.com\/corda-platform\/."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"(2022, January 15). Dragonchain. Available online: https:\/\/dragonchain.com\/."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2022, January 15). Orbs: Decentralized Public Blockchain. Available online: https:\/\/www.orbs.com\/."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102656","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2020.102656","article-title":"Blockchain-based decentralized storage networks: A survey","volume":"162","author":"Benisi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Netw. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lamport, L., Shostak, R., and Pease, M. (2019). The Byzantine generals problem. Concurrency: The Works of Leslie Lamport, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1145\/3335772.3335936"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"101","article-title":"A Survey about Consensus Algorithms Used in Blockchain","volume":"14","author":"Nguyen","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Inf. Process. Syst."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-812282-2.00007-3","article-title":"Blockchain\u2014From public to private","volume":"Volume 2","author":"Lai","year":"2018","journal-title":"Handbook of Blockchain, Digital Finance, and Inclusion"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2022, January 15). Proof of Work Description. Available online: https:\/\/en.bitcoin.it\/wiki\/Proof_of_work."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Gorkey, I., El Moussaoui, C., Wijdeveld, V., and Sennema, E. (2022, January 15). Comparative Study of Byzantine Fault Tolerant Consensus Algorithms on Permissioned Blockchains. Available online: https:\/\/repository.tudelft.nl\/islandora\/object\/uuid%3A01083a4a-900b-4cf9-9746-cb9258c11d9e."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2020.113385","article-title":"A survey of blockchain consensus algorithms performance evaluation criteria","volume":"154","author":"Bamakan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43622","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2904181","article-title":"Applicability and appropriateness of distributed ledgers consensus protocols in public and private sectors: A systematic review","volume":"7","author":"Shahaab","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alsunaidi, S.J., and Alhaidari, F.A. (2019, January 3\u20134). A survey of consensus algorithms for blockchain technology. Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Computer and Information Sciences (ICCIS), Sakaka, Saudi Arabia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCISci.2019.8716424"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2022, January 15). Bitcoin Wiki. Available online: https:\/\/en.bitcoin.it\/."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2022, January 15). Qtum Blockchain New Whitepaper. Available online: https:\/\/qtum.org\/user\/pages\/01.home\/Qtum&%20New%20Whitepaper_en.pdf."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"EOS (2022, January 15). Stake Based Voting and Rewards Mechanism. Available online: https:\/\/eos.io\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/04\/Block.one-Stake-Based-Voting-and-Rewards-Mechanism-March-2021.pdf."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"The ZILLIQA Team (2022, January 15). The ZILLIQA Technical Whitepaper, Version 0.1. Available online: https:\/\/docs.zilliqa.com\/whitepaper.pdf."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2022, January 15). Team, Vechain. Vechain White Paper. Available online: https:\/\/www.vechain.org\/whitepaper\/."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1007\/s12599-020-00656-x","article-title":"The energy consumption of blockchain technology: Beyond myth","volume":"62","author":"Sedlmeir","year":"2020","journal-title":"Bus. Inf. Syst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Ferdous, M.S., Chowdhury, M.J.M., Hoque, M.A., and Colman, A. (2020). Blockchain consensus algorithms: A survey. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, W., Andreina, S., Bohli, J.M., and Karame, G. (2017). Securing proof-of-stake blockchain protocols. Data Privacy Management, Cryptocurrencies and Blockchain Technology, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-67816-0_17"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"(2022, January 15). EthHub\u2014Ethereum Roadmap\u2014Ethereum 2.0 (Serenity) Phases. Available online: https:\/\/docs.ethhub.io\/ethereum-roadmap\/ethereum-2.0\/eth-2.0-phases\/."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"(2022, January 15). Delegated Proof of Stake (DPOS). Available online: https:\/\/how.bitshares.works\/en\/master\/technology\/dpos.html."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118541","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2935149","article-title":"Delegated proof of stake with downgrade: A secure and efficient blockchain consensus algorithm with downgrade mechanism","volume":"7","author":"Yang","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Castro, M., and Liskov, B. (1999, January 22\u201325). Practical Byzantine fault tolerance. Proceedings of the OSDI, New Orleans, LA, USA."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, Y., and Lian, Z. (2019, January 15\u201317). High Performance and Scalable Byzantine Fault Tolerance. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE 3rd Information Technology, Networking, Electronic and Automation Control Conference (ITNEC), Chengdu, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITNEC.2019.8728972"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"De Angelis, S., Aniello, L., Baldoni, R., Lombardi, F., Margheri, A., and Sassone, V. (2022, January 15). PBFT vs Proof-of-Authority: Applying the CAP Theorem to Permissioned Blockchain. Available online: https:\/\/iris.uniroma1.it\/retrieve\/handle\/11573\/1337256\/1302941\/DeAngelis_PBFT_2018.pdf."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Ongaro, D., and Ousterhout, J. (2022, January 15). In Search of an Understandable Consensus Algorithm (Extended Version). Available online: https:\/\/pages.cs.wisc.edu\/~remzi\/Classes\/739\/Spring2004\/Papers\/raft.pdf."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMC.2019.2895471","article-title":"Performance analysis of the raft consensus algorithm for private blockchains","volume":"50","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. Syst."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Grunspan, C., and P\u00e9rez-Marco, R. (2018). On profitability of selfish mining. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Solat, S., and Potop-Butucaru, M. (2016). Zeroblock: Timestamp-free prevention of block-withholding attack in bitcoin. arXiv.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-69084-1_25"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Douceur, J.R. (2002). The sybil attack. International Workshop on Peer-to-Peer Systems, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-45748-8_24"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ye, C., Li, G., Cai, H., Gu, Y., and Fukuda, A. (2018, January 22\u201323). Analysis of security in blockchain: Case study in 51%-attack detecting. Proceedings of the 2018 5th International Conference on Dependable Systems and Their Applications (DSA), Dalian, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/DSA.2018.00015"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5715","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2019.2921566","article-title":"Double-spending with a sybil attack in the bitcoin decentralized network","volume":"15","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Zimwara, T. (2022, January 15). Ethereum Classic Suffers 51% Attack Again: Delisting Risk Amplified. Available online: https:\/\/news.bitcoin.com\/ethereum-classic-suffers-51-attack-again-delisting-risk-amplified\/."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Nichols, S. (2022, January 15). AWS DNS Network Hijack Turns MyEtherWallet into ThievesEtherWallet. Available online: https:\/\/www.theregister.com\/2018\/04\/24\/myetherwallet_dns_hijack\/."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Heilman, E., Kendler, A., Zohar, A., and Goldberg, S. (2015, January 12\u201314). Eclipse attacks on bitcoin\u2019s peer-to-peer network. Proceedings of the 24th USENIX Security Symposium (USENIX Security 15), Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2017.08.020","article-title":"A survey on the security of blockchain systems","volume":"107","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Future Gener. Comput. Syst."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moubarak, J., Filiol, E., and Chamoun, M. (2018, January 18\u201320). On blockchain security and relevant attacks. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE Middle East and North Africa Communications Conference (MENACOMM), Jounieh, Lebanon.","DOI":"10.1109\/MENACOMM.2018.8371010"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodler, M., Li, W., Karame, G.O., and Davi, L. (2018). Sereum: Protecting existing smart contracts against re-entrancy attacks. arXiv.","DOI":"10.14722\/ndss.2019.23413"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dika, A., and Nowostawski, M. (August, January 30). Security vulnerabilities in ethereum smart contracts. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Conference on Internet of Things (iThings) and IEEE Green Computing and Communications (GreenCom) and IEEE Cyber, Physical and Social Computing (CPSCom) and IEEE Smart Data (SmartData), Halifax, NS, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/Cybermatics_2018.2018.00182"},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"(2022, January 15). Known Attacks. Available online: https:\/\/consensys.github.io\/smart-contract-best-practices\/known_attacks\/."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cooper, D., Heilman, E., Brogle, K., Reyzin, L., and Goldberg, S. (2013, January 21\u201323). On the risk of misbehaving RPKI authorities. Proceedings of the Twelfth ACM Workshop on Hot Topics in Networks, College Park, MD, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2535771.2535787"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yoo, C.S., and Wishnick, D.A. (2019). Lowering Legal Barriers to RPKI Adoption, University of Penn Law School. Available online: https:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3308619.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3308619"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, X., Xu, D., and Dang, H. (2019, January 15\u201318). BGP-LSChain: An Inter-domain Link State Sharing Framework Based on Blockchain. Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Blockchain Technology, Honolulu, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3320154.3320157"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icte.2020.12.005","article-title":"BGPChain: Constructing a secure, smart, and agile routing infrastructure based on blockchain","volume":"7","author":"Yan","year":"2021","journal-title":"ICT Express"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xing, Q., Wang, B., and Wang, X. (2018). Bgpcoin: Blockchain-based internet number resource authority and bgp security solution. Symmetry, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/sym10090408"},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"3528","article-title":"Design and Implementation of InBlock\u2014A Distributed IP Address Registration System","volume":"15","author":"Angieri","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Syst. J."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mastilak, L., Galinski, M., Helebrandt, P., Kotuliak, I., and Ries, M. (2020). Enhancing Border Gateway Protocol Security Using Public Blockchain. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20164482"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106584","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compeleceng.2020.106584","article-title":"ISRchain: Achieving efficient interdomain secure routing with blockchain","volume":"83","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Electr. Eng."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpdc.2020.04.005","article-title":"A novel routing verification approach based on blockchain for inter-domain routing in smart metropolitan area networks","volume":"142","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Parallel Distrib. Comput."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sentana, I.W.B., Ikram, M., and Kaafar, M.A. (2020, January 1). BlockJack: Blocking IP Prefix Hijacker in Inter-Domain Routing. Proceedings of the Student Workshop, Barcelona, Spain.","DOI":"10.1145\/3426746.3434052"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1868","DOI":"10.1109\/JAS.2021.1004204","article-title":"DRRS-BC: Decentralized routing registration system based on blockchain","volume":"8","author":"Lu","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE\/CAA J. Autom. Sin."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Sfirakis, I., and Kotronis, V. (2019). Validating IP prefixes and AS-paths with blockchains. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saad, M., Anwar, A., Ahmad, A., Alasmary, H., Yuksel, M., and Mohaisen, A. (2019, January 14\u201317). RouteChain: Towards blockchain-based secure and efficient BGP routing. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Conference on Blockchain and Cryptocurrency (ICBC), Seoul, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/BLOC.2019.8751229"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166896","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2954096","article-title":"Decentralized trust in the inter-domain routing infrastructure","volume":"7","author":"Paillisse","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1690","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSM.2020.3015557","article-title":"ROAchain: Securing Route Origin Authorization with Blockchain for Inter-Domain Routing","volume":"18","author":"He","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Netw. Serv. Manag."},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"(2022, January 15). NIST RPKI Monitor, Available online: https:\/\/rpki-monitor.antd.nist.gov\/ROV."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1145\/2567561.2567566","article-title":"A survey of interdomain routing policies","volume":"44","author":"Gill","year":"2013","journal-title":"ACM SIGCOMM Comput. Commun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"Huston, G. (2022, January 15). BGP in 2021\u2014The BGP Table. Available online: https:\/\/blog.apnic.net\/2022\/01\/06\/bgp-in-2021-the-bgp-table\/."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"Huston, G. (2022, January 15). BGP in 2021\u2014BGP Updates. Available online: https:\/\/blog.apnic.net\/2022\/01\/13\/bgp-updates-2021\/."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"(2022, January 15). The BGP Instability Report. Available online: https:\/\/bgpupdates.potaroo.net\/instability\/bgpupd.html."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1145\/571637.571640","article-title":"Practical Byzantine fault tolerance and proactive recovery","volume":"20","author":"Castro","year":"2002","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Comput. Syst. (TOCS)"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2949","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2017.2722380","article-title":"A survey on approaches to reduce BGP interdomain routing convergence delay on the Internet","volume":"19","author":"Mota","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/4\/1437\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:18:40Z","timestamp":1760134720000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/4\/1437"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,13]]},"references-count":88,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s22041437"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22041437","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,13]]}}}