{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]],"date-time":"2026-08-01T05:10:11Z","timestamp":1785561011161,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,15]],"date-time":"2022-02-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1644883200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004242","name":"Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PRFA-P- 43 - 2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PRFA-P- 43 - 2"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004242","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Over the past several years, the adoption of HealthCare Monitoring Systems (HCS) in health centers and organizations like hospitals or eldery homes growth significantly. The adoption of such systems is revolutionized by a propelling advancements in IoT and Blockchain technologies. Owing to technological advancement in IoT sensors market, innovations in HCS to monitor patients health status have motivated many countries to strength their efforts to support their citizens with such care delivery systems under the directives of a physician who has access to patient\u2019s data. Nevertheless, secure data sharing is a principal patient\u2019s concern to be comfort to use such systems. Current HCS are not able to provide reassuring security policies. For that, one of our focus in this work, is to provide security countermeasures, likewise cost-efficient solution for HCS by integrating storage model based on Blockchain and Interplanetary File Systems (IPFS). Blockchain technology is an emerging solution in pharmaceutical industry and starts to take place for HCS and allows HealthCare providers to track connected devices and control access to shared data, hence protecting patients\u2019 privacy. Furthermore, the addition of Edge and Fog computing has improved HCS to react in real-time and enhance their reliability. A variety of communication protocols can connect sensor devices to edge\/Fog layer and the best choice will depend upon connectivity requirements: range, bandwidth, power, interoperability, security, and reliability. Instead, systems efficiency would decline and hurt if communication protocol is inconsistent. LoRa (Long Range) communications technology is emerging as the leader among Low-Power Wide-Area Networks (LPWANs) entering the IoT domain benefiting from many features such as long-range distances and low power consumption. This work proposes LoRaChainCare, an architecture model for HCS which combines the technologies Blockchain, Fog\/Edge computing, and the LoRa communication protocol. A real implementation of LoRaChainCare system is presented and evaluated in terms of cost, run time and power consumption.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22041497","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,15]],"date-time":"2022-02-15T22:44:47Z","timestamp":1644965087000},"page":"1497","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":60,"title":["LoRaChainCare: An IoT Architecture Integrating Blockchain and LoRa Network for Personal Health Care Data Monitoring"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Bouthaina","family":"Dammak","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Information Technology, Applied College, Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh 84428, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2646-3962","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mariem","family":"Turki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ISIMG, University of Gabes, Gabes 6033, Tunisia"},{"name":"CES Lab, University of Sfax, Sfax 3038, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4607-7452","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Saoussen","family":"Cheikhrouhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ReDCAD, University of Sfax, Sfax 3038, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mouna","family":"Baklouti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CES Lab, University of Sfax, Sfax 3038, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rawya","family":"Mars","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ReDCAD, University of Sfax, Sfax 3038, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Afef","family":"Dhahbi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Administrative Sciences, Applied College, Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh 84428, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1957","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2019.2913535","article-title":"Infrastructure Monitoring and Operation for Smart Cities Based on IoT System","volume":"16","author":"Lv","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1007\/s42979-020-00195-y","article-title":"Development of Smart Healthcare Monitoring System in IoT Environment","volume":"1","author":"Islam","year":"2020","journal-title":"SN Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2021, December 22). Health Care, Available online: https:\/\/www.my.gov.sa\/wps\/portal\/snp\/aboutksa\/HealthCareInKSA."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2347","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2015.2444095","article-title":"Internet of Things: A Survey on Enabling Technologies, Protocols, and Applications","volume":"17","author":"Guizani","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"(2021, December 22). Connected Medical Device Market-Growth, Trends, Covid-19 Impact, and Forecasts (2021\u20132026). Available online: https:\/\/www.mordorintelligence.com\/industry-reports\/connected-medical-device-market."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10916-019-1445-8","article-title":"A Systematic Review for Enabling of Develop a Blockchain Technology in Healthcare Application: Taxonomy, Substantially Analysis, Motivations, Challenges, Recommendations and Future Direction","volume":"43","author":"Hussien","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Med. Syst."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csbj.2018.06.003","article-title":"Blockchain technology for healthcare: Facilitating the transition to patient-driven interoperability","volume":"16","author":"Gordon","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Struct. Biotechnol. J."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abid, A., Cheikhrouhou, S., Kallel, S., and Jmaiel, M. (2021). NovidChain: Blockchain-based privacy-preserving platform for COVID-19 test\/vaccine certificates. Softw. Pract. Exper., 1\u201327.","DOI":"10.1002\/spe.2983"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abid, A., Cheikhrouhou, S., and Jmaiel, M. (2020). Modelling and Executing Time-Aware Processes in Trustless Blockchain Environment. SRisks and Security of Internet and Systems, Proceedings of the 14th International Conference, CRiSIS 2019, Hammamet, Tunisia, 29\u201331 October 2019, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-41568-6_21"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Abid, A., Cheikhrouhou, S., and Jmaiel, M. (2021, January 18\u201320). Temporal constraints in smart contract-based process execution: A case study of organ transfer by healthcare delivery drone. Proceedings of the Volume 3067 of CEUR Workshop Proceedings, Tunisian-Algerian Joint Conference on Applied Computing (TACC 2021), Tabarka, Tunisia."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abid, A., Cheikhrouhou, S., and Jmaiel, M. (2020, January 16\u201319). How blockchain helps to combat trust crisis in COVID-19 pandemic? poster abstract. Proceedings of the 18th Conference on Embedded Networked Sensor Systems, Virtual, Online.","DOI":"10.1145\/3384419.3430605"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1211","DOI":"10.1093\/jamia\/ocx068","article-title":"Blockchain distributed ledger technologies for biomedical and health care applications","volume":"24","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Am. Med. Inform. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jamil, F., Ahmad, S., Iqbal, N., and Kim, D.H. (2020). Towards a Remote Monitoring of Patient Vital Signs Based on IoT-Based Blockchain Integrity Management Platforms in Smart Hospitals. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20082195"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iot.2020.100159","article-title":"Blockchain leveraged decentralized IoT eHealth framework","volume":"9","author":"Uddin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Internet Things"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1109\/JSYST.2020.2963840","article-title":"Blockchain for IoT-Based Healthcare: Background, Consensus, Platforms, and Use Cases","volume":"15","author":"Ray","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Syst. J."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.2019.1800083","article-title":"Edge Computing for Smart Health: Context-Aware Approaches, Opportunities, and Challenges","volume":"33","author":"Abdellatif","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Netw."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.011.1900636","article-title":"Edge Computing Based Healthcare Systems: Enabling Decentralized Health Monitoring in Internet of Medical Things","volume":"34","author":"Dong","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Netw."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2018.2843169","article-title":"An Edge-Based Architecture to Support Efficient Applications for Healthcare Industry 4.0","volume":"15","author":"Pace","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compeleceng.2018.08.015","article-title":"Fog computing for Healthcare 4.0 environment: Opportunities and challenges","volume":"72","author":"Kumari","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Electr. Eng."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Flavio, B., Rodolfo, M., Jiang, Z., and Sateesh, A. (2015). Fog Computing and the Internet of Things: Extend the Cloud to Where the Things Are, Cisco. Technical Report."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27262","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3058448","article-title":"An IoT-Based Healthcare Platform for Patients in ICU Beds During the COVID-19 Outbreak","volume":"9","author":"Filho","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi, Y., Ding, G., Wang, H., Roman, H.E., and Lu, S. (2015, January 28\u201330). The fog computing service for healthcare. Proceedings of the 2015 2nd International Symposium on Future Information and Communication Technologies for Ubiquitous HealthCare (Ubi-HealthTech), Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/Ubi-HealthTech.2015.7203325"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Semtech (2021, December 22). LoRa and LoRaWAN: A Technical Overview. Available online: https:\/\/lora-developers.semtech.com\/uploads\/documents\/files\/LoRa_and_LoRaWAN-A_Tech_Overview-Downloadable.pdf."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1109\/MCE.2018.2816299","article-title":"Everything You Wanted to Know About the Blockchain: Its Promise, Components, Processes, and Problems","volume":"7","author":"Puthal","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Consum. Electron. Mag."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aazam, M., and Huh, E.N. (2015, January 23\u201327). Dynamic resource provisioning through Fog micro datacenter. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communication Workshops (PerCom Workshops), St. Louis, MO, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/PERCOMW.2015.7134002"},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"708","article-title":"Two Birds with One Stone: Two-Factor Authentication with Security Beyond Conventional Bound","volume":"15","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Dependable Secur. Comput."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2017.02.014","article-title":"Exploiting smart e-Health gateways at the edge of healthcare Internet-of-Things: A fog computing approach","volume":"78","author":"Rahmani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Future Gener. Comput. Syst."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpdc.2017.11.018","article-title":"Cloud-centric IoT based disease diagnosis healthcare framework","volume":"116","author":"Verma","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Parallel Distrib. Comput."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Queralta, J.P., Gia, T.N., Tenhunen, H., and Westerlund, T. (2019, January 1\u20133). Edge-AI in LoRa-based Health Monitoring: Fall Detection System with Fog Computing and LSTM Recurrent Neural Networks. Proceedings of the 2019 42nd International Conference on Telecommunications and Signal Processing (TSP), Budapest, Hungary.","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2019.8768883"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2271","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSE.2019.2941754","article-title":"Mobi-IoST: Mobility-Aware Cloud-Fog-Edge-IoT Collaborative Framework for Time-Critical Applications","volume":"7","author":"Ghosh","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Netw. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"943","DOI":"10.1007\/s12652-020-02113-9","article-title":"Internet of Health Things (IoHT) for personalized health care using integrated edge-fog-cloud network","volume":"12","author":"Mukherjee","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Ambient. Intell. Humaniz. Comput."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"1","article-title":"Developing Software for Multi-Access Edge Computing","volume":"20","author":"Sabella","year":"2019","journal-title":"ETSI White Pap."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2017.2757955","article-title":"A Software Defined Fog Node Based Distributed Blockchain Cloud Architecture for IoT","volume":"6","author":"Sharma","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100422","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iot.2021.100422","article-title":"Identification and Authentication in Healthcare Internet-of-Things Using Integrated Fog Computing Based Blockchain Model","volume":"15","author":"Shukla","year":"2021","journal-title":"Internet Things"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jss.2019.04.050","article-title":"FogBus: A Blockchain-based Lightweight Framework for Edge and Fog Computing","volume":"154","author":"Tuli","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Syst. Softw."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Ekblaw, A., Azaria, A., Halamka, J.D., and Lippman, A. (2010). A Case Study for Blockchain in Healthcare: \u201cMedRec\u201d Prototype for Electronic Health Records and Medical Research Data, Department of Informatics, University of Zurich. Technical Report."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Steichen, M., Fiz, B., Norvill, R., Shbair, W., and State, R. (August, January 30). Blockchain-Based, Decentralized Access Control for IPFS. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Conference on Internet of Things (iThings) and IEEE Green Computing and Communications (GreenCom) and IEEE Cyber, Physical and Social Computing (CPSCom) and IEEE Smart Data (SmartData), Halifax, NS, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/Cybermatics_2018.2018.00253"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66792","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2917555","article-title":"Blockchain for Secure EHRs Sharing of Mobile Cloud Based E-Health Systems","volume":"7","author":"Nguyen","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y., Li, H., Li, K., and Zhang, J. (2017, January 11\u201314). An improved P2P file system scheme based on IPFS and Blockchain. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Big Data (Big Data), Boston, MA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/BigData.2017.8258226"},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"404","article-title":"Physical activity and the prevention of coronary heart disease","volume":"3","author":"Fox","year":"1971","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Bhaskar Kashyap (2021, December 22). Introduction to Smart Contracts. Available online: https:\/\/ethereum.org\/en\/developers\/docs\/smart-contracts\/."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2021, December 22). Remix-Ethereum IDE. Available online: https:\/\/remix.ethereum.org\/."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"(2021, December 22). React\u2014A JavaScript Library for Building User Interfaces. Available online: https:\/\/reactjs.org\/."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"(2021, December 22). MetaMask-A Crypto Wallet & Gateway to Blockchain Apps. Available online: https:\/\/metamask.io\/."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"(2021, December 22). Ganache. Available online: https:\/\/trufflesuite.com\/ganache\/."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Semtech (2021, December 22). SX1276 Development Kit User Guide. Available online: https:\/\/semtech.my.salesforce.com\/sfc\/p\/#E0000000JelG\/a\/2R0000001Rbr\/6EfVZUorrpoKFfvaF_Fkpgp5kzjiNyiAbqcpqh9qSjE."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Atmel (2021, December 22). Atmega328p Datasheet. Available online: https:\/\/ww1.microchip.com\/downloads\/en\/DeviceDoc\/Atmel-7810-Automotive-Microcontrollers-ATmega328P_Datasheet.pdf."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"ADSONG (2021, December 22). DHT11 Datasheet. Available online: https:\/\/components101.com\/sites\/default\/files\/component_datasheet\/DHT11-Temperature-Sensor.pdf."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Analog Devices (2021, December 22). Single-Lead, Heart Rate Monitor Front End. Available online: https:\/\/cdn.sparkfun.com\/datasheets\/Sensors\/Biometric\/AD8232.pdf."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"SEN-11574 (2021, December 22). Heart Rate Sensor Datasheet. Available online: https:\/\/media.digikey.com\/pdf\/Data%20Sheets\/Pulse%20Sensor%20PDFs\/Pulse_Sensor.pdf."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bouguera, T., Diouris, J.F., Chaillout, J.J., Jaouadi, R., and Andrieux, G. (2018). Energy consumption model for sensor nodes based on LoRa and LoRaWAN. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18072104"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/4\/1497\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:20:09Z","timestamp":1760134809000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/4\/1497"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,15]]},"references-count":51,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s22041497"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22041497","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,15]]}}}