{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,5]],"date-time":"2026-05-05T22:11:57Z","timestamp":1778019117429,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,15]],"date-time":"2022-02-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1644883200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004837","name":"Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PID2020-118249RB-C21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2020-118249RB-C21"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004837","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003759","name":"Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["RP1509550C02"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RP1509550C02"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003759","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Unmanned traffic management (UTM) systems rely on collaborative position reporting to track unmanned aerial system (UAS) operations over wide unsurveilled (with counter-UAS systems) areas. Many different technologies, such as Remote-ID, ADS-B, FLARM, or MLAT might be used for this purpose, in addition to the direct exploitation of C2 telemetry, relayed though cellular networks. This paper provides an overview of the most used collaborative sensors and surveillance systems in this context, analyzing their main technical parameters and performance effects. In addition, this paper proposes an abstracted general statistical simulation model covering message encoding, network capacity and access, sensors coverage and distribution, message transmission and decoding. Making use of this abstracted model, this paper proposes a particularized set of simulation models for ADS-B, FLARM and Remote-Id; it is thus useful to test their potential integration in UTM systems. Finally, a comparative analysis, based on simulation, of these systems, is performed. It is shown that the most relevant effects are those related with quantification and the potential saturation of the communication channels leading to collisions and delays.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22041498","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,15]],"date-time":"2022-02-15T22:44:47Z","timestamp":1644965087000},"page":"1498","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Modelling and Simulation of Collaborative Surveillance for Unmanned Traffic Management"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4330-4050","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan A.","family":"Besada","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Information Processing and Telecommunications Center, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1943-3098","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Carrami\u00f1ana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Information Processing and Telecommunications Center, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Luca","family":"Bergesio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Information Processing and Telecommunications Center, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4250-9652","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ivan","family":"Campa\u00f1a","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Information Processing and Telecommunications Center, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ana M.","family":"Bernardos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Information Processing and Telecommunications Center, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48572","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2909530","article-title":"Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs): A Survey on Civil Applications and Key Research Challenges","volume":"7","author":"Shakhatreh","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2022, January 27). State-of-the-Art Technologies for UAV Inspections. Available online: https:\/\/ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/epdf\/10.1049\/iet-rsn.2017.0251."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2020.107148","article-title":"A Compilation of UAV Applications for Precision Agriculture","volume":"172","author":"Sarigiannidis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Erdelj, M., and Natalizio, E. (2016, January 15\u201318). UAV-Assisted Disaster Management: Applications and Open Issues. Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on Computing, Networking and Communications (ICNC), Kauai, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCNC.2016.7440563"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gervasi, O., Murgante, B., Misra, S., Garau, C., Ble\u010di\u0107, I., Taniar, D., Apduhan, B.O., Rocha, A.M.A.C., Tarantino, E., and Torre, C.M. (2021, January 13\u201316). Urban Air Mobility: A State of Art Analysis. Proceedings of the Computational Science and Its Applications\u2014ICCSA 2021, Cagliari, Italy.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-87007-2"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"SESAR Joint Undertaking (2020, December 03). European Drones Outlook Study. Available online: https:\/\/www.sesarju.eu\/sites\/default\/files\/documents\/reports\/European_Drones_Outlook_Study_2016.pdf."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"SESAR Joint Undertaking (2017). U-Space Blueprint, SESAR."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"(2020, September 18). CORUS Project, SESAR JU Concept of Operations for European UTM Systems (CORUS). Available online: https:\/\/www.eurocontrol.int\/project\/concept-operations-european-utm-systems."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"ICAO (2014). Surveillance and Collision Avoidance Systems; Annexes to the Convention on international Civil Aviation. Annex 10, ICAO. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EASA (2020). Opinion 01\/2020 High-Level Regulatory Framework for the U-Space, EASA.","DOI":"10.1007\/JHEP09(2020)131"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"European Commision (2021). Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2021\/664 of 22 April 2021 on a Regulatory Framework for the U-Space (Text with EEA Relevance), European Commision."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carrami\u00f1ana, D., Campa\u00f1a, I., Bergesio, L., Bernardos, A.M., and Besada, J.A. (2021). Sensors and Communication Simulation for Unmanned Traffic Management. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21030927"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guterres, M., Jones, S., Orrell, G., and Strain, R. (2017, January 9\u201313). ADS-B Surveillance System Performance With Small UAS at Low Altitudes. Proceedings of the AIAA Information Systems-AIAA Infotech @ Aerospace, Grapevine, TX, USA.","DOI":"10.2514\/6.2017-1154"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"SESAR Joint Undertaking (2021, December 30). Initial View on Principles for the U-Space Architecture. Available online: https:\/\/www.sesarju.eu\/node\/3402."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Federal Register (2021, December 30). Remote Identification of Unmanned Aircraft; 2021, Available online: https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/documents\/2021\/01\/15\/2020-28948\/remote-identification-of-unmanned-aircraft."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"European Commision (2019). Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2019\/945 of 12 March 2019 on Unmanned Aircraft Systems and on Third-Country Operators of Unmanned Aircraft Systems, European Commision."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"(2021, October 25). UAS Remote Identification Overview, Available online: https:\/\/www.faa.gov\/uas\/getting_started\/remote_id\/."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"(2021, November 02). RTCA DO-260\u2014Minimum Operational Performance Standards for 1090 MHz Extended Squitter Automatic Dependent Surveillance\u2014Broadcast (ADS-B) and Traffic Information Services\u2014Broadcast (TIS-B)|Engineering360. Available online: https:\/\/standards.globalspec.com\/std\/14355824\/rtca-do-260."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Reed, R. (2021, October 22). Ping20Si. Available online: https:\/\/uavionix.com\/products\/ping20si\/."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duffield, M., and McLain, T.W. (2017). A Well Clear Recommendation for Small UAS in High-Density, ADS-B-Enabled Airspace. AIAA Information Systems-AIAA Infotech @ Aerospace, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.","DOI":"10.2514\/6.2017-0908"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stark, B., Stevenson, B., and Chen, Y. (2013, January 28\u201331). ADS-B for Small Unmanned Aerial Systems: Case Study and Regulatory Practices. Proceedings of the 2013 International Conference on Unmanned Aircraft Systems (ICUAS), Atlanta, GA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICUAS.2013.6564684"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matheou, K.J., Apaza, R.D., Downey, A.N., Kerczewski, R.J., and Wang, J. (2018, January 10\u201312). ADS-B Mixed SUAS and NAS System Capacity Analysis and DAA Performance. Proceedings of the 2018 Integrated Communications, Navigation, Surveillance Conference (ICNS), Herndon, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICNSURV.2018.8384838"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Martel, F., Schultz, R., Wang, Z., Czarnomski, M., and Semke, W. (2017). Unmanned Aircraft Systems Sense and Avoid Avionics Utilizing ADS-B Transceiver. AIAA Infotech@Aerospace Conference, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"(2020, September 27). FLARM Technology FLARM UAS ELECTRONIC ID. Available online: https:\/\/flarm.com\/technology\/eid\/."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2021, October 26). Atom UAV\u2014FLARM for Drones. Available online: https:\/\/flarm.com\/products\/uav\/atom-uav-flarm-for-drones\/."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"(2021, November 02). HOD4track Germany (Special Offer Price). Available online: https:\/\/droniq.de\/en\/products\/hod4track-deutschland."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"(2021, November 02). GBSAS Stationary Germany. Available online: https:\/\/droniq.de\/en\/products\/gbsas-stationar-deutschland."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2021, November 10). Sending Telemetry (Mobile). Available online: https:\/\/developers.airmap.com\/docs\/sending-telemetry-mobile."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2021, November 10). Sending Telemetry (GRPC). Available online: https:\/\/developers.airmap.com\/docs\/sending-telemetry-grpc#overview."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2021, November 10). Surveillance API. Available online: https:\/\/docs.altitudeangel.com\/docs\/surveillance-api."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2021). Scout, Altitude Angel. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/AltitudeAngel\/Scout."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(2021, November 10). BLIP. Available online: https:\/\/unifly.aero\/products\/blip."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"European Commision (2020). Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2020\/1058 of 27 April 2020 Amending Delegated Regulation (EU) 2019\/945 as Regards the Introduction of Two New Unmanned Aircraft Systems Classes, European Commision."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mujumdar, O., Celebi, H., Guvenc, I., Sichitiu, M., Hwang, S., and Kang, K.-M. (2021, January 25\u201328). Use of LoRa for UAV Remote ID with Multi-User Interference and Different Spreading Factors. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE 93rd Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC2021-Spring), Helsinki, Finland.","DOI":"10.1109\/VTC2021-Spring51267.2021.9448804"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"F38 Committee (2019). Standard Specification for Remote ID and Tracking, ASTM International."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"D05\/WG08 Direct Remote ID (2021, November 02). Introduction to the European Uas Digital Remote Id Technical Standard. Available online: https:\/\/asd-stan.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/ASD-STAN_DRI_Introduction_to_the_European_digital_RID_UAS_Standard.pdf."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2021, November 02). Drone Remote ID Protocol (Drip). Available online: https:\/\/datatracker.ietf.org\/wg\/drip\/about\/."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46066","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2866323","article-title":"Detailed Examination of a Packet Collision Model for Bluetooth Low Energy Advertising Mode","volume":"6","author":"Ghamari","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1109\/MWC.2015.7096294","article-title":"Enabling Always on Service Discovery: Wi-Fi Neighbor Awareness Networking (NAN)","volume":"22","author":"Loureiro","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Schulman, B. (2021, November 10). FAA Remote ID: What It Means for You and Your DJI Drone. Available online: https:\/\/viewpoints.dji.com\/blog\/faa-remote-id-what-it-means-for-you-and-your-dji-drone."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Struwe, C. (2021, November 10). How to Make Your DJI Drone Compliant with the French Remote ID Requirement. Available online: https:\/\/enterprise-insights.dji.com\/blog\/how-to-make-your-dji-drone-compliant-with-french-remote-id."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2021, November 10). Parrot FreeFlight 6.7 Application Update Integrates New Flight Features and Direct Remote Identification Support. Available online: https:\/\/www.parrot.com\/en\/newsroom\/parrot-freeflight-6.7.4-update."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"IdME (RemoteID) (2021, November 04). AEROBITS. Available online: https:\/\/www.aerobits.pl\/product\/idme\/."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"(2021, November 04). ScaleFlyt Remote ID: Identification & Tracking for Safe Drone Operations. Available online: https:\/\/www.thalesgroup.com\/en\/markets\/aerospace\/drone-solutions\/scaleflyt-remote-id-identification-tracking-safe-drone-operations."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"(2021, November 10). More Products\u2014UAS\u2014Remote ID\u2014Counter UAS\u2014RadioBro Corporation. Available online: https:\/\/www.radiobro.com\/uas\/."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"(2021, November 10). Dedrone First to Offer Both United States and European Union Drone Remote ID Capability. Available online: https:\/\/www.dedrone.com\/press\/dedrone-first-to-offer-both-united-states-and-european-union-drone-remote-id-capability."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Harada, H. (2002). Simulation and Software Radio for Mobile Communications, Artech House."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"281","article-title":"The ALOHA system: Another Alternative for Computer Communications","volume":"37","author":"Abramson","year":"1977","journal-title":"Fall Jt. Comput. Conf."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1400","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOM.1975.1092768","article-title":"Packet Switching in Radio Channels: Part I\u2014Carrier Sense Multiple-Access Modes and Their Throughput-Delay Characteristics","volume":"23","author":"Kleinrock","year":"1975","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"(2021, December 14). P.525: C\u00e1lculo de La Atenuaci\u00f3n En El Espacio Libre. Available online: https:\/\/www.itu.int\/rec\/R-REC-P.525\/es."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"(2021, December 10). P.372: Ruido Radioel\u00e9ctrico. Available online: https:\/\/www.itu.int\/rec\/R-REC-P.372-15-202109-I\/es."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peng, W., Li, Y., Li, H., and Wen, B. (2012). A Novel High-Sensitivity ADS-B Receiver Based on RF Direct Logarithmic Detecting, Atlantis Press.","DOI":"10.2991\/iccasm.2012.186"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1186\/1687-1499-2012-94","article-title":"Analytical and Empirical Evaluation of the Impact of Gaussian Noise on the Modulations Employed by Bluetooth Enhanced Data Rates","volume":"2012","author":"Luque","year":"2012","journal-title":"EURASIP J. Wirel. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Cabrera, M., and Tarr\u00e9s, F. (2021, November 10). Multiplexaci\u00f3n por divisi\u00f3n en frecuencias ortogonales (OFDM). Available online: http:\/\/openaccess.uoc.edu\/webapps\/o2\/bitstream\/10609\/63345\/2\/Teor%C3%ADa%20de%20la%20codificaci%C3%B3n%20y%20modulaciones%20avanzadas_M%C3%B3dulo%205_Multiplexaci%C3%B3n%20por%20divisi%C3%B3n%20en%20frecuencias%20ortogonales%28OFDM%29.pdf."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"AIRBUS (2021, November 10). The Airbus Unmanned Traffic Management Blueprint. Available online: https:\/\/www.airbusutm.com\/uam-resources-airbus-blueprint."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/4\/1498\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:20:04Z","timestamp":1760134804000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/4\/1498"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,15]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s22041498"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22041498","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,15]]}}}