{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,29]],"date-time":"2026-01-29T22:34:02Z","timestamp":1769726042699,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,15]],"date-time":"2022-02-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1644883200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Scientific Board of the Discipline of Mechanical Engineering at the Warsaw University of Technology","award":["Publication grant"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Publication grant"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The main errors of MEMS accelerometers are misalignments of their sensitivity axes, thermal and long-term drifts, imprecise factory calibration, and aging phenomena. In order to reduce these errors, a two-axial tilt sensor comprising a triaxial MEMS accelerometer, an aligning unit, and solid cubic housing was built. By means of the aligning unit it was possible to align the orientation of the accelerometer sensitive axes with respect to the housing with an accuracy of 0.03\u00b0. Owing to the housing, the sensor could be easily and quickly recalibrated, and thus errors such as thermal and long-term drifts as well as effects of aging were eliminated. Moreover, errors due to local and temporal variations of the gravitational acceleration can be compensated for. Procedures for calibrating and aligning the accelerometer are described. Values of thermal and long-term drifts of the tested sensor, resulting in tilt errors of even 0.4\u00b0, are presented. Application of the sensor for monitoring elevated loads is discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22041504","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,15]],"date-time":"2022-02-15T22:44:47Z","timestamp":1644965087000},"page":"1504","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Tilt Sensor with Recalibration Feature Based on MEMS Accelerometer"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2351-9473","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sergiusz","family":"\u0141uczak","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Mechatronics, 02-525 Warsaw, Poland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9261-9529","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maciej","family":"Zams","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Mechatronics, 02-525 Warsaw, Poland"}]},{"given":"Bogdan","family":"D\u0105browski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Mechatronics, 02-525 Warsaw, Poland"}]},{"given":"Zbigniew","family":"Kusznierewicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Mechatronics, 02-525 Warsaw, Poland"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Angelis, A., Santoni, F., Carbone, P., Cecconi, M., Vecchietti, A., and Di Lorenzo, F. (2020). Development of an IoT Structural Monitoring System Applied to a Hypogeal Site. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20236769"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"907","DOI":"10.1017\/S0373463317000017","article-title":"An augmented strapdown inertial navigation system using jerk and jounce of motion for a flying robot","volume":"70","author":"Bayat","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Navig."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, J., Wang, W., Huang, S., and Ding, W. (2020). An Improved Calibration Technique for MEMS Accelerometer-Based Inclinometers. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20020452"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u0141uczak, S., and Ekwi\u0144ska, M. (2021). Electric-Contact Tilt Sensors: A Review. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21041097"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ursel, T., and Olinski, M. (2021). Displacement Estimation Based on Optical and Inertial Sensor Fusion. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21041390"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Youssef, A.A., Al-Subaie, N., El-Sheimy, N., and Elhabiby, M. (2021). Accelerometer-Based Wheel Odometer for Kinematics Determination. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21041327"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2007.910080","article-title":"Design and Implementation of a Mechatronic, All-Accelerometer Inertial Measurement Unit","volume":"12","author":"Parsa","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE\/ASME Trans. Mechatron."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"5184907","article-title":"Selected Aging Effects in Triaxial MEMS Accelerometers","volume":"2019","author":"Zams","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Sens."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mart\u00ednez, J., Asiain, D., and Beltr\u00e1n, J.R. (2021). Lightweight Thermal Compensation Technique for MEMS Capacitive Accelerometer Oriented to Quasi-Static Measurements. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21093117"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Z., Cai, C., Yang, M., and Zhang, Y. (2019). Testing of a MEMS Dynamic Inclinometer Using the Stewart Platform. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19194233"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1897","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/18\/7\/016","article-title":"A new multi-position calibration method for MEMS inertial navigation systems","volume":"18","author":"Syed","year":"2007","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Aggarwal, P., Syed, Z., Noureldin, A., and El-Sheimy, N. (2010). MEMS-Based Integrated Navigation, Artech House Inc."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jab\u0142onski, R., and Brezina, T. (2016). Fast alignment procedure for MEMS accelerometers. Advanced Mechatronics Solutions, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-23923-1"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Wilson, J.S. (2005). Sensor Technology Handbook, Newnes."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1157","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2011.2167319","article-title":"Analyses of triaxial accelerometer calibration algorithms","volume":"12","author":"Novacek","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2313","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2013.2252891","article-title":"Robust Inclinometer System with Accurate Calibration of Tilt and Azimuth Angles","volume":"13","author":"Yang","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"255","article-title":"Evaluation of Fine Alignment Algorithm for inertial navigation","volume":"87","author":"Reinstein","year":"2011","journal-title":"Electr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1109\/JMEMS.2017.2692770","article-title":"A micro oven-control system for inertial sensors","volume":"26","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Microelectromechan. Syst."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"(1996). Reducing accelerometer temperature drift with crystal ovens. Sensors, 13, 92."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Kaajakari, V. (2009). Practical MEMS, Small Gear Publishing."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2144","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2009.2031849","article-title":"A Triaxial Accelerometer Calibration Method Using a Mathematical Model","volume":"59","author":"Won","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"634","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/13\/5\/315","article-title":"Experimental evaluation and comparative analysis of commercial variable capacitance MEMS accelerometers","volume":"13","author":"Acar","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2006.886995","article-title":"Nonlinear regression model of a low-g MEMS accelerometer","volume":"7","author":"Ang","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11797","DOI":"10.3390\/s130911797","article-title":"Automatic Determination of Validity of Input Data Used in Ellipsoid Fitting MARG Calibration Algorithms","volume":"13","author":"Olivares","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2100","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2012.2182991","article-title":"Autocalibration of Triaxial MEMS Accelerometers with Automatic Sensor Model Selection","volume":"12","author":"Frosio","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-4247(98)00049-1","article-title":"Procedure for in-use calibration of triaxial accelerometers in medical applications","volume":"68","author":"Schipper","year":"1998","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"9796146","article-title":"Selection of MEMS Accelerometers for Tilt Measurements","volume":"2017","author":"Grepl","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Sens."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14885","DOI":"10.3390\/s140814885","article-title":"Time- and Computation-Efficient Calibration of MEMS 3D Accelerometers and Gyroscopes","volume":"14","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2022, February 08). USB-6211 Specifications, National Instruments. Available online: https:\/\/www.ni.com\/pdf\/manuals\/375195d.pdf."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(1999). Expression of the Uncertainty of Measurement in Calibration, Publication Reference EA-4\/02, European Co-operation for Accreditation."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2022, February 08). Small, Low Power, 3-Axis \u00b1 2 g Accelerometer, ADXL327, Analog Devices Inc.: Norwood, MA, USA. Available online: https:\/\/www.analog.com\/media\/en\/technical-documentation\/data-sheets\/ADXL327.pdf."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1109\/84.896778","article-title":"Three-Axes Monolithic Silicon Low-g Accelerometer","volume":"9","author":"Schoft","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Microelectromechan. Syst."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Jankowski, M. (2015). Miniature Wireless Tilt Sensor Based on MEMS Accelerometer. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Warsaw University of Technology]. (In Polish)."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2017.02.245","article-title":"Selected Mechanical Properties of PETG 3-D Prints","volume":"177","author":"Szykiedans","year":"2017","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2016.01.207","article-title":"Mechanical properties of FDM and SLA low-cost 3-D prints","volume":"136","author":"Szykiedans","year":"2016","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Kaczorowski, T. (2016). Miniature Wired Tilt Sensor Based on 3-Axis MEMS Accelerometer. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Warsaw University of Technology]. (In Polish)."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2022, February 08). Tactical Grade, Ten Degrees of Freedom Inertial Sensor, ADIS16488A, Analog Devices Inc.: Norwood, MA, USA. Available online: https:\/\/www.analog.com\/media\/en\/technical-documentation\/data-sheets\/ADIS16488A.pdf."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2022, February 08). Six Degrees of Freedom Inertial Sensor, ADIS16362, Analog Devices Inc.: Norwood, MA, USA. Available online: https:\/\/www.analog.com\/media\/en\/technical-documentation\/data-sheets\/ADIS16362.pdf."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"\u0141uczak, S., D\u0105browski, B., and Jankowski, M. (2018). Tilt Sensor (Czujnik Odchylenia od Pionu). (Patent Pending: P. 425929), (In Polish)."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"\u0141uczak, S., and Zams, M. (2020). Device for Monitoring Tilt of Elevated Load (Przyrz\u0105d do Monitorowania Odchylenia od Pionu Podnoszonego \u0141adunku). (Patent Pending: P. 434816), (In Polish)."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/4\/1504\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:20:07Z","timestamp":1760134807000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/4\/1504"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,15]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s22041504"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22041504","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,15]]}}}