{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,9]],"date-time":"2026-04-09T00:15:06Z","timestamp":1775693706264,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,17]],"date-time":"2022-02-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1645056000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education","award":["Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Nowadays, we observe a great interest in air pollution, including exhaust fumes. This interest is manifested in both the development of technologies enabling the limiting of the emission of harmful gases and the development of measures to detect excessive emissions. The latter includes IoT systems, the spread of which has become possible thanks to the use of low-cost sensors. This paper presents the development and field testing of a prototype pollution monitoring system, allowing for both online and off-line analyses of environmental parameters. The system was built on a UAV and WebRTC-based platform, which was the subject of our previous paper. The platform was retrofitted with a set of low-cost environmental sensors, including a gas sensor able to measure the concentration of exhaust fumes. Data coming from sensors, video metadata captured from 4K camera, and spatiotemporal metadata are put in one situational context, which is transmitted to the ground. Data and metadata are received by the ground station, processed (if needed), and visualized on a dashboard retrieving situational context. Field studies carried out in a parking lot show that our system provides the monitoring operator with sufficient situational awareness to easily detect exhaust emissions online, and delivers enough information to enable easy detection during offline analyses as well.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22041578","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,17]],"date-time":"2022-02-17T20:26:41Z","timestamp":1645129601000},"page":"1578","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["The Prototype Monitoring System for Pollution Sensing and Online Visualization with the Use of a UAV and a WebRTC-Based Platform"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8958-9426","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Agnieszka","family":"Chodorek","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Applied Computer Science, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Automatic Control and Computer Science, Kielce University of Technology, Al. 1000-lecia P.P. 7, 25-314 Kielce, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0772-5093","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Robert Ryszard","family":"Chodorek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Telecommunications, Faculty of Computer Science, Electronics and Telecommunications, The AGH University of Science and Technology, Al. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3260-8462","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexander","family":"Yastrebov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Applied Computer Science, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Automatic Control and Computer Science, Kielce University of Technology, Al. 1000-lecia P.P. 7, 25-314 Kielce, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1923.02650050039014","article-title":"Health Hazard from Automobile Exhaust Gas in City Streets, Garages and Repair Shops: The Vertical Exhaust as a Practical Measure of Amelioration","volume":"81","author":"Henderson","year":"1923","journal-title":"J. Am. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2022, January 10). Air Quality Guidelines: Global Update 2005: Particulate Matter Ozone Nitrogen Dioxide and Sulfur Dioxide, No. 1, World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/www.euro.who.int\/__data\/assets\/pdf_file\/0005\/78638\/E90038.pdf."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mokrani, H., Lounas, R., Bennai, M.T., Salhi, D.E., and Djerbi, R. (2019, January 9\u201311). Air Quality Monitoring Using IoT: A Survey. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Smart Internet of Things (SmartIoT), Tianjin, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/SmartIoT.2019.00028"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, M.A.H., Rao, M.V., and Li, Q. (2019). Recent Advances in Electrochemical Sensors for Detecting Toxic Gases: NO2, SO2 and H2S. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19040905"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"308","article-title":"Effect of the RME Biodiesel on the Diesel Engine Fuel Consumption and Emission","volume":"23","year":"2021","journal-title":"Commun.-Sci. Lett. Univ. Zilina"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138617","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tsf.2021.138617","article-title":"Iridium oxide films as propane sensors","volume":"724","author":"Chaudhary","year":"2021","journal-title":"Thin Solid Films"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cruz-Mart\u00ednez, H., Rojas-Ch\u00e1vez, H., Montejo-Alvaro, F., Pe\u00f1a-Casta\u00f1eda, Y.A., Matadamas-Ortiz, P.T., and Medina, D.I. (2021). Recent Developments in Graphene-Based Toxic Gas Sensors: A Theoretical Overview. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21061992"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mumtaz, R., Zaidi, S.M.H., Shakir, M.Z., Shafi, U., Malik, M.M., Haque, A., Mumtaz, S., and Zaidi, S.A.R. (2021). Internet of Things (IoT) Based Indoor Air Quality Sensing and Predictive Analytic\u2014A COVID-19 Perspective. Electronics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics10020184"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"(2022, January 10). Health Risks of Air Pollution in Europe\u2014HRAPIE Project. Recommendations for Concentration\u2014Response Functions for Cost\u2013Benefit Analysis of Particulate Matter, Ozone and Nitrogen Dioxide. World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/www.euro.who.int\/__data\/assets\/pdf_file\/0006\/238956\/Health_risks_air_pollution_HRAPIE_project.pdf."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"(2022, January 10). WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines. Particulate Matter (PM2.5 and PM10), Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide, Sulfur Dioxide and Carbon Monoxide. World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/apps.who.int\/iris\/bitstream\/handle\/10665\/345329\/9789240034228-eng.pdf."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Neubert, S., Roddelkopf, T., Al-Okby, M.F.R., Junginger, S., and Thurow, K. (2021). Flexible IoT Gas Sensor Node for Automated Life Science Environments Using Stationary and Mobile Robots. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21217347"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Varandas, L., Faria, J., Gaspar, P.D., and Aguiar, M.L. (2020). Low-Cost IoT Remote Sensor Mesh for Large-Scale Orchard Monitorization. J. Sens. Actuator Netw., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jsan9030044"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stojcsics, D., Domozi, Z., and Molnar, A. (2018, January 7\u201310). Air Pollution Localisation Based on UAV Survey. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (SMC), Miyazaki, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/SMC.2018.00436"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Soka\u010d, M., \u0110urasek, P., Ba\u010di\u0107, I., and Pu\u0161kari\u0107, S. (2016, January 12\u201314). UAV application in ecology: Data collecting with quad-copter equipped with Arduino based measurement platform. Proceedings of the 2016 International Symposium ELMAR, Zadar, Croatia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ELMAR.2016.7731794"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nomura, K., Madokoro, H., Chiba, T., Inoue, M., Nagayoshi, T., Kiguchi, O., Woo, H., and Sato, K. (2019, January 15\u201318). Operation and Maintenance of In-Situ CO2 Measurement System Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles. Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Control, Automation and Systems, Jeju, Korea.","DOI":"10.23919\/ICCAS47443.2019.8971523"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chiba, T., Haga, Y., Inoue, M., Kiguchi, O., Nagayoshi, T., Madokoro, H., and Morino, I. (2019). Measuring Regional Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations in the Lower Troposphere with a Non-Dispersive Infrared Analyzer Mounted on a UAV, Ogata Village, Akita, Japan. Atmosphere, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos10090487"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3334","DOI":"10.3390\/s150203334","article-title":"Mini-UAV Based Sensory System for Measuring Environmental Variables in Greenhouses","volume":"15","author":"Joossen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Y., Zheng, Z., Bian, K., Jiang, Y., Song, L., and Han, Z. (2017). Arms: A Fine-Grained 3D AQI Realtime Monitoring System by UAV. Proceedings of the GLOBECOM 2017\u20142017 IEEE Global Communications, Singapore, 4\u20138 December 2017, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/GLOCOM.2017.8253968"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Y., Bai, Z., Hu, Z., Zheng, Z., Bian, K., and Song, L. (2018, January 15\u201319). AQNet: Fine-grained 3D spatio-temporal air quality monitoring by aerial-ground WSN. Proceedings of the IEEE INFOCOM 2018\u2014IEEE Conference on Computer Communications Workshops (INFOCOM WKSHPS), Honolulu, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/INFCOMW.2018.8406985"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Simi\u0107, M., Stojanovi\u0107, G.M., Manjakkal, L., and Zaraska, K. (2016). Multi-sensor system for remote environmental (air and water) quality monitoring. Proceedings of the 2016 24th Telecommunications Forum (TELFOR), Belgrade, Serbia, 22\u201323 November 2016, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/TELFOR.2016.7818711"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marinov, M.B., Topalov, I., Ganev, B., Gieva, E., and Galabov, V. (2019, January 12\u201314). UAVs Based Particulate Matter Pollution Monitoring. Proceedings of the IEEE XXVIII International Scientific Conference Electronics (ET), Sozopol, Bulgaria.","DOI":"10.1109\/ET.2019.8878586"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5469","DOI":"10.3390\/s100605469","article-title":"Metal Oxide Semi-Conductor Gas Sensors in Environmental Monitoring","volume":"10","author":"Fine","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012091","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/1921\/1\/012091","article-title":"Semi-Autonomous UAV based Weather and Air Pollution Monitoring System","volume":"1921","author":"Guin","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sunny, A.I., Zhao, A., Li, L., and Kanteh Sakiliba, S. (2021). Low-Cost IoT-Based Sensor System: A Case Study on Harsh Environmental Monitoring. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21010214"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, Y., Dong, W., Guo, K., Liu, X., Chen, Y., Liu, X., Bu, J., and Chen, C. (2016, January 10\u201314). Mosaic: A low-cost mobile sensing system for urban air quality monitoring. Proceedings of the IEEE INFOCOM 2016\u2014The 35th Annual IEEE International Conference on Computer Communications, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/INFOCOM.2016.7524478"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guan, G., Chen, Y., Guo, K., Gao, Y., and Dong, W. (2016, January 10\u201314). Low-cost urban air quality monitoring with Mosaic. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Communications Workshops (INFOCOM WKSHPS), San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/INFCOMW.2016.7562155"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gu, Q., Michanowicz, D.R., and Jia, C. (2018). Developing a Modular Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Platform for Air Pollution Profiling. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18124363"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pochwa\u0142a, S., Gardecki, A., Lewandowski, P., Somogyi, V., and Anweiler, S. (2020). Developing of Low-Cost Air Pollution Sensor\u2014Measurements with the Unmanned Aerial Vehicles in Poland. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20123582"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chodorek, A., Chodorek, R.R., and Yastrebov, A. (2021). Weather Sensing in an Urban Environment with the Use of a UAV and WebRTC-Based Platform: A Pilot Study. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21217113"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1145\/3453182","article-title":"WebRTC: Real-time communication for the open web platform","volume":"64","author":"Blum","year":"2021","journal-title":"Commun. ACM"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Jennings, C., Bostr\u00f6m, H., and Bruaroey, J. (2022, January 10). WebRTC 1.0: Real-Time Communication between Browsers; W3C Recommendation. 26 January 2021. Available online: https:\/\/www.w3.org\/TR\/2021\/REC-webrtc-20210126\/."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2017.1600283","article-title":"How far are we from webrtc-1.0? An update on standards and a look at what\u2019s next","volume":"55","author":"Loreto","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Kleinhout, H. (2022, January 10). WebRTC Is Now a W3C and IETF Standard. 26 January 2021. Available online: https:\/\/web.dev\/webrtc-standard-announcement\/."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Aboba, B. (2022, January 10). WebRTC Next Version Use Cases; W3C Group Draft Note. 23 November 2021. Available online: https:\/\/www.w3.org\/TR\/webrtc-nv-use-cases\/."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.3906\/elk-1302-178","article-title":"Synthesis of real-time cloud applications for Internet of Things","volume":"23","author":"Czarnecki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Turk. J. Electr. Eng. Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chodorek, A., Chodorek, R.R., and Wajda, K. (2019, January 7\u20139). Media and non-media WebRTC communication between a terrestrial station and a drone: The case of a flying IoT system to monitor parking. Proceedings of the IEEE\/ACM 23rd International Symposium on Distributed Simulation and Real Time Applications (DS-RT), Cosenza, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/DS-RT47707.2019.8958706"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chodorek, A., Chodorek, R.R., and Sitek, P. (2021). UAV-Based and WebRTC-Based Open Universal Framework to Monitor Urban and Industrial Areas. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21124061"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Bubley, D., and IoT & Realtime Communications (2022, January 10). IEEE Internet of Things Newsletter 2016. Available online: https:\/\/iot.ieee.org\/newsletter\/march-2016\/iot-realtime-communications.html."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"423","article-title":"Influence of temperature and humidity on the output resistance ratio of the MQ-135 sensor","volume":"6","author":"Kalra","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Res. Comput. Sci. Softw. Eng."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Villa, T.F., Salimi, F., Morton, K., Morawska, L., and Gonzalez, F. (2016). Development and Validation of a UAV Based System for Air Pollution Measurements. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16122202"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alvarado, M., Gonzalez, F., Erskine, P., Cliff, D., and Heuff, D. (2017). A Methodology to Monitor Airborne PM10 Dust Particles Using a Small Unmanned Aerial Vehicle. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17020343"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koziar, Y., Levchuk, V., and Koval, A. (2019, January 16\u201318). Quadrotor Design for Outdoor Air Quality Monitoring. Proceedings of the IEEE 39th International Conference on Electronics and Nanotechnology (ELNANO), Kyiv, Ukraine.","DOI":"10.1109\/ELNANO.2019.8783909"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Poyi, G.T., Wu, M.H., Bousbaine, A., and Wiggins, B. (2013, January 4\u20135). Validation of a quadrotor helicopter Matlab\/Simulink and Solidworks models. Proceeding of the IET Conference on Control and Automation 2013: Uniting Problems and Solutions, Birmingham, UK.","DOI":"10.1049\/cp.2013.0012"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Y., Yonezawa, K., and Liu, H. (2021). Effect of Ducted Multi-Propeller Configuration on Aerodynamic Performance in Quadrotor Drone. Drones, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/drones5030101"},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Barholmai, M., and Neumann, P. (2010, January 4\u20136). Micro-Drone for Gas Measurement in Hazardous Scenarios via Remote Sensing. Proceedings of the 6th WSEAS International Conference on Remote Sensing (REMOTE \u201910)\u2014Selected Topics in Power Systems and Remote Sensing, Takizawa, Japan."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jing, T., Wang, J.Y., and Meng, Q.H. (2020, January 27\u201329). An Aero-olfactory-Effect Elimination Algorithm for Rotor UAV based Gas Distribution Mapping. Proceedings of the 2020 39th Chinese Control Conference (CCC), Shenyang, China.","DOI":"10.23919\/CCC50068.2020.9188643"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tanaka, S., Takei, Y., Hirasawa, K., and Nanto, H. (2015, January 1\u20134). An experimental study of 3D odor plume tracking using multicopter with gas sensor array. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE SENSORS, Busan, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSENS.2015.7370581"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Do, S., Lee, M., and Kim, J.-S. (2020). The Effect of a Flow Field on Chemical Detection Performance of Quadrotor Drone. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20113262"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shukla, D., and Komerath, N. (2018). Multirotor Drone Aerodynamic Interaction Investigation. Drones, 2.","DOI":"10.3390\/drones2040043"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dorcea, D., Hnatiuc, M., and Lazar, I. (2018, January 25\u201328). Acquisition and calibration interface for gas sensors. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE 24th International Symposium for Design and Technology in Electronic Packaging (SIITME), Iasi, Romania.","DOI":"10.1109\/SIITME.2018.8599253"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Banks, A., and Gupta, R. (2022, January 10). MQTT Version 3.1.1; OASIS Standard. 10 December 2015. Available online: https:\/\/docs.oasis-open.org\/mqtt\/mqtt\/v3.1.1\/mqtt-v3.1.1.html."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Banks, A., Briggs, E., Borgendale, K., and Gupta, R. (2021, December 01). MQTT Version 5.0. Specification; OASIS Standard. 7 March 2019. Available online: https:\/\/docs.oasis-open.org\/mqtt\/mqtt\/v5.0\/mqtt-v5.0.html."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"(2022, January 10). ArduPilot. Available online: https:\/\/ardupilot.org\/ardupilot\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"(2022, January 10). ArduPilot. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/ArduPilot\/ardupilot."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/4\/1578\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:21:46Z","timestamp":1760134906000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/4\/1578"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,17]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s22041578"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22041578","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,17]]}}}