{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,2]],"date-time":"2026-07-02T06:19:11Z","timestamp":1782973151505,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,24]],"date-time":"2022-02-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1645660800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Systems for accurate attitude and position monitoring of large structures, such as bridges, tunnels, and offshore platforms are changing in recent years thanks to the exploitation of sensors based on Micro-ElectroMechanical Systems (MEMS) as an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU). Currently adopted solutions are, in fact, mainly based on fiber optic sensors (characterized by high performance in attitude estimation to the detriment of relevant costs large volumes and heavy weights) and integrated with a Global Position System (GPS) capable of providing low-frequency or single-update information about the position. To provide a cost-effective alternative and overcome the limitations in terms of dimensions and position update frequency, a suitable solution and a corresponding prototype, exhibiting performance very close to those of the traditional solutions, are presented and described hereinafter. The solution leverages a real-time Kalman filter that, along with the proper features of the MEMS inertial sensor and Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) GPS, allows achieving performance in terms of attitude and position estimates suitable for this kind of application. The results obtained in a number of tests underline the promising reliability and effectiveness of the solution in estimating the attitude and position of large structures. In particular, several tests carried out in the laboratory highlighted high system stability; standard deviations of attitude estimates as low as 0.04\u00b0 were, in fact, experienced in tests conducted in static conditions. Moreover, the prototype performance was also compared with a fiber optic sensor in tests emulating actual operating conditions; differences in the order of a few hundredths of a degree were found in the attitude measurements.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22051788","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,24]],"date-time":"2022-02-24T21:11:07Z","timestamp":1645737067000},"page":"1788","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Low-Cost and High-Performance Solution for Positioning and Monitoring of Large Structures"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4460-6640","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giorgio","family":"de Alteriis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Naples Federico II, Piazzale Tecchio 80, 80125 Naples, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Management, Information and Production Engineering, University of Bergamo, 24044 Dalmine, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9441-2927","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claudia","family":"Conte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Naples Federico II, Piazzale Tecchio 80, 80125 Naples, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Management, Information and Production Engineering, University of Bergamo, 24044 Dalmine, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Enzo","family":"Caputo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Naples Federico II, Piazzale Tecchio 80, 80125 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6287-5521","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paolo","family":"Chiariotti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, 20156 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8843-0109","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Domenico","family":"Accardo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Naples Federico II, Piazzale Tecchio 80, 80125 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6861-8374","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alfredo","family":"Cigada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, 20156 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4875-2845","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rosario","family":"Schiano Lo Moriello","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Naples Federico II, Piazzale Tecchio 80, 80125 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2467","DOI":"10.1002\/stc.2467","article-title":"Global Navigation Satellite System-based Positioning Technology for Structural Health Monitoring: A Review","volume":"27","author":"Yu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Struct. Control. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiao, P., Egbe, K.-J.I., Xie, Y., Matin Nazar, A., and Alavi, A.H. (2020). Piezoelectric Sensing Techniques in Structural Health Monitoring: A State-of-the-Art Review. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20133730"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chybowski, L., Tomczak, A., and Kozak, M. (2021). Measurement Methods in the Operation of Ships and Offshore Facilities. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21062159"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"V01BT01A053","article-title":"Prototype Data Analysis on LH11-1 Semisubmersible Platform in South China Sea","volume":"Volume 45387","author":"Du","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proceedings of the International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peters, D.J.H., Zimmer, R.A., Hein, M.W., Wang, W.J., Leverette, S.J., and Bozeman, J.D. (1990, January 7\u201310). Weight Control, Performance Monitoring, and in-Situ Inspection of the TLWP. Proceedings of the Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, TX, USA.","DOI":"10.4043\/6363-MS"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2017.10.014","article-title":"A Review of the State-of-the-Art Developments in the Field Monitoring of Offshore Structures","volume":"147","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iervolino, R., Bonavolont\u00e0, F., and Cavallari, A. (2017, January 27\u201329). A Wearable Device for Sport Performance Analysis and Monitoring. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Workshop on Measurement and Networking (M & N), Naples, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/IWMN.2017.8078375"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Angrisani, L., Martire, V., Marvaso, M., Peirce, R., Picardi, A., Termo, G., Toni, A.M., Viola, G., Zimmaro, A., and Amodio, A. (2019, January 24\u201326). An Innovative Air Quality Monitoring System Based on Drone and Iot Enabling Technologies. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Workshop on Metrology for Agriculture and Forestry (MetroAgriFor), Portici, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/MetroAgriFor.2019.8909245"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2019.01.008","article-title":"Integrated GNSS\/IMU Hub Motion Estimator for Offshore Wind Turbine Blade Installation","volume":"123","author":"Ren","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liagre, P., Gupta, H., and Banon, H. (2008, January 5\u20138). Monitoring of Floating Offshore Installations\u2019 Wave Frequency Motions. Proceedings of the Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, TX, USA.","DOI":"10.2118\/19565-MS"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Zhu, X.Y. (2014). Research and Simulation of FPSO Movement Based on Field Monitoring. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Dalian University of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-020-01411-6","article-title":"An Offshore Real-Time Precise Point Positioning Technique Based on a Single Set of BeiDou Short-Message Communication Devices","volume":"94","author":"Nie","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2017.12.030","article-title":"Design and Application of a Monitoring System for the Floatover Installation","volume":"150","author":"Tian","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Wang, Z. (2015). Offshore Platform Prototype Monitoring and Modal Analysis of the Mooring Structure. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Dalian University of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Groves, P.D. (2015). Principles of GNSS, Inertial, and Multisensor Integrated Navigation Systems, IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine; IEEE. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1109\/MAES.2014.14110"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, W., Song, D., Wang, Z., and Fang, K. (2019). Comparative Analysis between Error-State and Full-State Error Estimation for KF-Based IMU\/GNSS Integration against IMU Faults. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19224912"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gross, J., Gu, Y., and Napolitano, M. (2010, January 2\u20135). A Systematic Approach for Extended Kalman Filter Tuning and Low-Cost Inertial Sensor Calibration within a GPS\/INS Application. Proceedings of the AIAA Guidance, Navigation, and Control Conference, Toronto, ON, Canada.","DOI":"10.2514\/6.2010-7759"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1124","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2007.899983","article-title":"Remote Didactic Laboratory \u201cG. Savastano,\u201d The Italian Experience for E-Learning at the Technical Universities in the Field of Electrical and Electronic Measurements: Overview on Didactic Experiments","volume":"56","author":"Andria","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"1","article-title":"Full Scale Measurement of LH11-1 FPS Hull and Mooring System","volume":"31","author":"Qu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1109\/7361.983473","article-title":"INS\/GPS Technology Trends","volume":"1","author":"Schmidt","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Alteriis, G., Bottino, V., Conte, C., Rufino, G., and Schiano Lo Moriello, R. (2021, January 23\u201325). Accurate Attitude Inizialization Procedure Based on MEMS IMU and Magnetometer Integration. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE 8th International Workshop on Metrology for AeroSpace (MetroAeroSpace), Naples, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/MetroAeroSpace51421.2021.9511679"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fontanella, R., Accardo, D., Schiano Lo Moriello, R., Angrisani, L., and de Simone, D. (2018). An Innovative Strategy for Accurate Thermal Compensation of Gyro Bias in Inertial Units by Exploiting a Novel Augmented Kalman Filter. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18051457"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feng, X., Zhang, T., Lin, T., Tang, H., and Niu, X. (2020). Implementation and Performance of a Deeply-Coupled GNSS Receiver with Low-Cost MEMS Inertial Sensors for Vehicle Urban Navigation. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20123397"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"943","article-title":"A Review of Navigation Systems (Integration and Algorithms)","volume":"3","author":"Ismaeel","year":"2009","journal-title":"Aust. J. Basic Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1966","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2018.2805231","article-title":"Enhancing Localization Accuracy of MEMS-INS\/GPS\/In-Vehicle Sensors Integration during GPS Outages","volume":"67","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Alteriis, G., Conte, C., Schiano Lo Moriello, R., and Accardo, D. (2020, January 22\u201324). Use of Consumer-Grade MEMS Inertial Sensors for Accurate Attitude Determination of Drones. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE 7th International Workshop on Metrology for AeroSpace (MetroAeroSpace), Pisa, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/MetroAeroSpace48742.2020.9160134"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8853","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2020.2998909","article-title":"A PSO-MMA Method for the Parameters Estimation of Interarea Oscillations in Electrical Grids","volume":"69","author":"Bonavolonta","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baccigalupi, A., and Liccardo, A. (2007, January 1\u20133). Compensation of Current Transformers. Proceedings of the 2007 IEEE Instrumentation & Measurement Technology Conference IMTC 2007, Warsaw, Poland.","DOI":"10.1109\/IMTC.2007.378991"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9163","DOI":"10.3390\/s101009163","article-title":"A Zero Velocity Detection Algorithm Using Inertial Sensors for Pedestrian Navigation Systems","volume":"10","author":"Park","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fan, Q., Zhang, H., Sun, Y., Zhu, Y., Zhuang, X., Jia, J., and Zhang, P. (2018). An Optimal Enhanced Kalman Filter for a ZUPT-Aided Pedestrian Positioning Coupling Model. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18051404"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1124","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2007.899983","article-title":"Remote Didactic Laboratory \u201cG. Savastano,\u201d The Italian Experience for E-Learning at the Technical Universities in the Field of Electrical and Electronic Measurement: Architecture and Optimization of the Communication Performance Based on Thin Client Technology","volume":"56","author":"Andria","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fontanella, R., de Alteriis, G., Schiano Lo Moriello, R.S., Accardo, D., and Angrisani, L. (2019, January 7\u201311). Results of Field Testing for an Integrated Gps\/Ins Unit Based on Low-Cost Redundant Mems Sensors. Proceedings of the AIAA Scitech 2019 Forum, San Diego, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.2514\/6.2019-2378"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Conte, C., de Alteriis, G., Rufino, G., and Accardo, D. (2020, January 22\u201324). An Innovative Process-Based Mission Management System for Unmanned Vehicles. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE 7th International Workshop on Metrology for AeroSpace (MetroAeroSpace), Pisa, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/MetroAeroSpace48742.2020.9160121"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"(2021, November 25). Analog Devices ADIS16495. Available online: https:\/\/www.analog.com\/en\/products\/adis16495.html."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"(2021, November 25). ublox ZED-F9P. Available online: https:\/\/www.u-blox.com\/en\/product\/zed-f9p-module."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2021, November 25). Roving Networks WRL-12580. Available online: https:\/\/www.micro-semiconductor.com\/datasheet\/ee-WRL-12580.pdf."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2021, November 25). STMicroelectronics Nucelo-F446RE. Available online: https:\/\/www.st.com\/en\/evaluation-tools\/nucleo-f446re.html."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2021, November 25). KUKA KR 120 R2700. Available online: https:\/\/www.kuka.com\/-\/media\/kuka-downloads\/imported\/6b77eecacfe542d3b736af377562ecaa\/0000346518_en.pdf?rev=7afcbd75a8ea4f4fa25a6f3e62fa4387&hash=CF1217DEF3E8B28F4AF696E76F069B53."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2021, November 25). iXblue Octanse Subsea. Available online: https:\/\/www.ixblue.com\/products\/octans-subsea."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/5\/1788\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:26:44Z","timestamp":1760135204000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/5\/1788"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,24]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3]]}},"alternative-id":["s22051788"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22051788","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,24]]}}}